One new genus and new species, Sinaxymyia rara gen. et sp. nov., is described. Juraxymyia gen. nov. is proposed for Psocites fossilis Zhang, 2004. The genus and species, Psocites pectinatus (Hong, 1983), is redescribed based on new axymyiids from the Jurassic of China. The systematic positions for Crenoptychoptera decorosa Hao, Dong et Ren, 2009, Crenoptychoptera vulgaris Hao, Dong et Ren, 2009, and Crenoptychoptera vicina Hao, Dong et Ren, 2009 are reassessed, these do belong rather to Axymyiidae than to Eoptychopterinae, Ptychopteridae. All the impressions of male axymyiid flies are the first description in the geological records of Axymyiidae. Establishing homologies between the sclerites of the male genitalia of the Jurassic species described here and recent species of the family is difficult.

Allomedeia new genus is described for five new species of oscinelline Chloropidae from the Afrotropical region. The following species are described; Allomedeia prolata new species (Kenya, Uganda); Allomedeia pulva new species (South Africa); Allomedeia stuckenbergi new species (South Africa); Allomedeia xanthotes new species (South Africa, type species of genus); and Allomedeia xuthomaina new species (Nigeria). Three additional species from South Africa and Nigeria represented only by females or damaged specimens are not formally described but are included in a key to species. Allomedeia belongs to the tribe Elachipterini, in a clade that also includes the Old World tropical genera Disciphus Becker, Alombus Becker, Sepsidoscinis Hendel, and Anatrichus Loew.

Pogonognathellus Börner is the most common genus of tomocerid Collembola in the southern Appalachian region of the United States. Scale pattern, cuticle color, and molecular data were used with morphology and chaetotaxy to reappraise the members of this genus. P. bidentatus and P. elongatus are confirmed as well-marked species; P. nigritus Maynard is removed from synonymy with P. elongatus and reestablished as a valid species, and a neotype is designated. Two new species are described. Pogonognathellus danieli n. sp. from a cave in Great Smoky Mountains National Park resembles the California cave species P. celsus but possesses clubbed tenent hairs on all tibiotarsi; in P. celsus, the tenent hairs are pointed. P. mystax n. sp. is related to the “P. flavescens complex” but differs in having a purple clypeus and a prominent band of light scales along the posterior edge of each tergite. Many collections of P. flavescens-like and P. dubius-like specimens were made but molecular analysis indicated that these specimens consisted of four P. dubius-like taxa and four P. flavescens-like taxa. True P. flavescens from Sweden (type locality) were molecularly distinct from the putative American P. flavescens included in the analysis. A tentative phylogenetic tree indicated three clades of southern Appalachian Pogonognathellus: one clade containing P. bidentatus; another clade containing species with posterior cephalic macrochaetae but without anterior macrochaetae on the fourth abdominal tergite (Abd. IV; P. elongatus, P. nigritus, and an undescribed species); and a third clade without posterior cephalic macrochaetae but with one pair of anterior macrochaetae on Abd. IV (P. danieli, P. mystax, and eight undescribed species).

Agastoroxenia panamensis Nieves-Aldrey & Medianero, a new genus and species of inquiline oak gall wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae: Synergini), is described from material reared from unidentified Andricus galls (Cynipini) on Quercus lancifolia Schltdl. & Cham. collected in Panama. The new genus is the first genus of inquiline oak gall wasps described from the Neotropics and the first species of this group recorded from Panama. The new genus is related to Saphonecrus and Synergus but differs from these genera mainly by the unique conformation of the male and female antenna.

Species of the genus Neohelota are classified into six species groups, and 60 species are recognized. Taxonomy of the laevigata and helleri species groups is presented in detail. Two new species are described: N. viklundi sp. nov. from Myanmar and N. satoi sp. nov. from Laos. A lectotype is designated for N. tibialis Ritsema. Protibiae, genitalia, aedeagal internal sacs, eighth abdominal tergites, and fifth abdominal ventrites are illustrated for all species.

A phylogeny of lacewing families Ithonidae and Polystoechotidae is presented based on three gene markers (16S and 18S ribosomal DNA and CAD) and 23 morphological characters. Living and fossil genera presently placed in Polystoechotidae (Fontecilla Navás, Platystoechotes Carpenter and Polystoechotes Burmeister) and Ithonidae (Adamsiana Penny, Allorapisma Makarkin & Archibald, Ithone Newman, Megalithone Riek, Oliarces Banks, PrincipialaMakarkin & Menon, Rapisma Walker and Varnia Walker) were included in phylogenetic analyses (parsimony and Bayesian) and compared with outgroups selected from various families of Neuroptera. The resulting phylogeny recovered a monophyletic clade comprising Ithonidae and Polystoechotidae as hypothesized previously. Rapismatidae as a separate family is not supported and Ithonidae are rendered paraphyletic with three extant genera previously placed in Ithonidae (Adamsiana, Oliarces, and Rapisma), recovered deep within Polystoechotidae. The fossil genera Allorapismaand Principialaformed a sister-group relationship with Rapisma, also within Polystoechotidae. Due to the lack of mutually exclusive synapomorphies for either Ithonidae or Polystoechotidae, a single more inclusive family Ithonidae is proposed, including all ithonid genera and all genera previously placed in Polystoechotidae. Synapomorphies characterizing the revised concept of Ithonidae s.l. are discussed.

A recent study of the material housed in the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle (Paris, France) provided new information to describe and illustrate the males of Ptychoderes brevis Jordan and Ptychoderes jekeli Mermudes & Napp (Coleoptera; Anthribidae). These males were previously unknown, and their characters had never been studied by the cladistical method. A reanalysis of the genus was carried out, which included 50 characters and 24 taxa (seven as outgroup). The resulting single most-parsimonious cladogram corroborates previous hypotheses of the relationships among the genera of Ptychoderini and groups of Ptychoderes species. The male of P. brevis is characterized by; rostrum 1.5× longer than wide across base; sides not swollen between scrobe and eye; scrobe with a deep narrow extension and a deep distal pit; antennae elongated, reaching middle of elytra; ventrite I swollen, with moderately developed setiferous sex patch, closer to apical margin, clothed with dense yellow pilosity; and ventrite V with lateroapical projections not acuminate. The male of P. jekeli has rostrum slightly longer than wide across base; sides not swollen and the extension shallow; antennae exceeding apical elytron by segment XI; ventrite I with well developed setiferous sex patch, closer to apical margin and with olive green pilosity; and ventrite V strongly impressed, with lateroapical angles not projected and somewhat expanded. The relationship between P. brevis and P. jekeli was confirmed, and this group belongs to the P. crustatus , corroborating the most basal lineage by the vestiture of the sides of prosternum with a vitta of the same color as the dorsal vestiture, and elytra transversely impressed behind the basal gibbosities.

The soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura, was recently introduced into North America where it has become a serious pest of soybean, Glyine max (L.) Merr. In its native range of northeastern Asia, A. glycines undergoes host alternation between the soybean (summer host) and Dahurian buckthorn, Rhamnus davurica Pallas (winter host). On the primary host, it is difficult to discriminate A. glycines from coexisting, morphologically similar Aphis species, including seasonal polymorphisms of each species (e.g., gynopara, ovipara, and male). Two widely used molecular markers, the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) “barcode” region (658 bp) and the partial tRNA-leucine cytochrome c oxidase II (tRNA/COII, 702 bp), were used to analyze 31 individuals of Aphis from R. davurica in Asia and compared with 26 closely related Aphis species. We found that three different species, Aphis gossypii Glover and two new and undescribed putative Aphis species, occur together with A. glycines on R. davurica. All these species were genetically close within the gossypii group. A study of 28 quantitative morphological characters showed that A. glycines, A. gossypii, and one of the new species were quite similar with only a few characters differing significantly between species.

The corn leafhopper, Dalbulus maidis (Delong & Wolcott) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), is the most important vector of maize, Zea mays L., pathogens throughout the Americas. This species originated in central Mexico, and the farthest southern latitude of the corn leafhopper' range is in Argentina. A comparison of reproductive and phenotypic traits between Argentinian and Mexican (native) populations can aid in understanding the adaptation of Argentinian populations of the same species. In this study, we compare the fecundity and body size (wing length and head width) of central Mexican D. maidis populations from low (<1,000-m) and high (>1,000-m) elevations with Argentinian D. maidis populations from low (<1,000 m) and high (>1,000 m) elevations. Argentinian populations from high elevations show higher fecundity than Mexican high elevation populations. Furthermore, Argentinian females from high elevations are larger in body size than Argentinian females from low elevations and Mexican females from low and high elevations.

Until recently, Schlettererius cinctipes (Cresson) (Hymenoptera: Stephanidae) has been restricted to western North America. Since 1996, three specimens of S. cinctipes have been found in the eastern United States (Kentucky and Virginia). To determine whether these specimens represent recent introductions from the west, cytochrome c oxidase I mitochondrial DNA and one region of 28s rDNA were examined, and pairwise distances were compared. Our results indicate the three specimens represent separate introductions from the west. Because S. cinctipes is a parasitoid of wood-boring insects, these conclusions indicate the ease and frequency with which wood-boring insects are transported across the United States.

Many recent studies have suggested that a majority of the species-level diversification in the arid-adapted North American biota was driven by mountain-building events that took place in the late Neogene (15-2 Ma). This assertion was tested with a phylogeographic analysis of the Odontophotopsis unicornis species-group by using the rDNA internal transcribed spacer regions internal transcribed spacer (ITS)1 and ITS2 and a Bayesian methodology. The validity of the two species in this species-group [Odontophotopsis unicornis Schuster and Odontophotopsis erebus (Melander) ] was tested both morphologically and molecularly. The female of O. unicornis was previously unknown and was associated with the male using molecular data. Here, O. unicornis is described and compared with that of its sister species O. erebus. Divergence dates for the O. unicornis species-group were estimated using the programs r8s and BEAST and calibrated with fossils from Dominican amber. These analyses resulted in a well supported phylogenetic tree that reinforces the notion that O. unicornis and O. erebus are distinct species. Little or no phylogenetic structuring was found among populations of either species. The species in this group seem to have evolved in the middle Pleistocene (≈1 Ma). The lack of phylogeographic structuring in each of the species of the O. unicornis speciesgroup is probably due to the recent origin of these species. This analysis represents one of the few instances of Pleistocene age species-level divergences in desert-adapted taxa.

Carbohydrate energy sources are known to be important for many adult parasitic wasps. Floral visitation is commonly observed, and in many groups specialized mouthpart morphology is associated with deep nectar extraction. In parasitic wasps, there are few data examining the relationship between host plant use and the length of the mouthparts. In an effort to associate mouthpart length to nectar source, pollen was identified from museum specimens of selected species of Agathirsia (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Despite drastic differences in glossa length, the pollen of several species of Asteraceae were commonly found on specimens of various species. We infer that increased feeding efficiency, as opposed to nectar access, is the adaptive value of elongate glossae in Agathirsia. Species with short mouthparts, however, exhibited a difference from both the medium and long mouthpart categories in pollen similarity. This suggests that members of Agathirsia with elongated mouthparts are more apt to visit certain flowers compared with short-tongued species. Males and females exhibited considerable overlap of their common nectar sources and displayed similar pollen richness. Pollen richness was higher in species in the medium length category compared with the short category, but these results are confounded by the fact that the medium-length specimens were on average larger bodied.

The development and mortality of diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.), were studied in laboratory at 25 ± 1°C, 65 ± 5% RH, and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) h on 10 canola cultivars: ‘SLM₀₄₆,’ ‘Opera,’ ‘Okapi,’ ‘RGS₀₀₃,’ ‘Modena,’ ‘Sarigol,’ ‘Zarfam,’ ‘Licord,’ ‘Hayula₄₂₀,’ and ‘Talaye.’ Larvae successfully survived on all host plants. The developmental time of immature stages ranged from 15.03 ± 0.15 d on Hayula₄₂₀ to 16.65 ± 0.29 d on Opera, with a larval period ranging from 7.67 to 8.91 d on these cultivars. Adult female longevity was longest on Hayula₄₂₀ without any supplemental food. Life table entropy values (H < 0.5) indicated Deevey's type I survivorship curve; however, the value of 0.541 on Hayula₄₂₀ (H > 0.5) corresponded to type III. Major mortality parameters such as fraction of original cohort dying between successive days of age, death frequency (d_x) of immature P. xylostella, average daily mortality (), and central death rate (m_x) were evaluated on canola cultivars and indicated that the highest m_x occurred on RGS₀₀₃, with relatively low potential of population growth, on fifth day of life when the pest is in early larval stages (Ll and L2). The early instars are the most susceptible stages and suffer the highest cause-specific mortality under laboratory conditions.

To evaluate the role of the constraint on egg size imposed by maternal size, we examined the relationships between female body size and egg size and shape in the grass-feeding satyrine butterfly Ypthima multistriata Butler (Lepidoptera: Satyridae). In this species, larger and smaller mothers occur in the first and second generations, respectively. Egg size relative to maternal body size (relative egg size) was larger in the second generation than in the first generation. However, no body size constraint on egg volume was apparent in either generation. The degree of egg elongation (the ratio of egg length to egg width) increased significantly with relative egg size only in the second generation, but the correlation was quite weak. These results indicate that body size does not strongly constrain the determination of egg size; therefore, mothers have little need to elongate their eggs to respond to morphological constraints.

Feeding behavior of the nymphs of Leptocorisa chinensis Dallas (Hemiptera: Alydidae) on various poaceous (grass) species was investigated. The sequence of behavioral phases of the nymph on the food plant was as follows: antennation, rostrum extension, dabbing with the labium, rostrum placement on the plant surface, stylet penetration, and sustained ingestion. Observed behavioral phases of nymphs released on seed heads differed among three categories of plants: food grasses (including rice), nonfood grasses, and nongrasses (nonfood). The nymphs were able to discriminate food grasses from nonfood grasses before they penetrated with their stylets. On nongrasses, nymphs did not exhibit the feeding behavioral phases except for antennation. Nymphs also exhibited behavioral phases such as antennation, rostrum extension, and dabbing with the labium, on paper strips treated with methanol extract of food grasses, but not with extract of nonfood grasses and nongrasses. These results suggest that chemical cues exist in food grass species.

The major grape (Vitis spp.)-growing areas of Washington were surveyed during 2003–2007 to determine the cutworm species present as larvae in vineyards during spring when grape buds and young shoots were vulnerable to cutworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) damage. We sampled vineyard floors during daytime, vines at night because cutworms are active at night, and vines during the day. In total, 1,003 larvae were collected and 650 were reared to adults and identified. Twenty-five species were found: 22 on the ground, eight on vines at night, and two on vines during the day. Almost 75% of the cutworms on vines at night were Abagrotis orbis (Grote) and 19% were Agrotis vetusta Walker. The spotted cutworm, Xestia c-nigrum (L.), and the redbacked cutworm, Euxoa ochrogaster (Guenée), were reported previously to be the major cutworm pests of grapes in Washington, but only four X. c-nigrum and no E. ochrogaster were collected. Abagrotis orbis larvae were collected on grapes at night from mid-March to late April. Adults emerged in the laboratory in mid-May, and they were present during the summer. Agrotis vetusta larvae were collected on grapes from 1 to 30 April. This species had a long prepupal period during the summer, followed by a pupal stadium of ≈3 wk. Mean adult emergence was in early August. Both species were univoltine, with mating and egg laying during the fall followed by overwintering as small larvae.

When assessing the reproductive potential of laboratory-reared predatory insects, the role of males is often neglected, although they may have a significant impact on the reproductive output of their female mates. The current study investigated the effect of age and diet of males on the reproductive capacity of the anthocorid predator Orius laevigatus (Fieber) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae). The tested diets consisted of eggs of Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller) and an egg yolk-based artificial diet. Regardless of their diet, virgin females did not produce any mature oocytes, indicating that mating is required to complete ovarian development. Food source and age of the males affected the reproductive potential of their female mates. When both males and females were offered the artificial diet, male age had a significant effect on female oocyte counts. Virgin females that were mated with 0-d-old virgin males produced fewer offspring than those mated with 8-d-old virgin males. In contrast, male age did not affect fecundity when the males were fed A. kuehniella eggs. The implications of the findings for the mass production of O. laevigatus are discussed.

Effects of photoperiod on reproduction and longevity of Podisus nigrispinus (Dallas) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) were assessed under seven different photophases (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16 h) at a constant 28 ± 1°C temperature and 70 ± 10% RH in the laboratory. Photoperiod affected the longevity of P. nigrispinus females. The highest longevity (24.10 d) occurred with a 15-h photoperiod, compared with longevity of 9.75 d at 12-h photoperiod. The preoviposition period of P. nigrispinus was influenced by the photoperiod. The preoviposition period of P. nigrispinus was longer for the 16-h photoperiod (7.25d) than for the 12- (4.06d), 13- (4.00 d), and 14-h (3.68d) photoperiod. The postoviposition period, the number of egg clutches per female per day, and the interval between egg clutches were not affected by the photoperiod. The postoviposition period ranged from 1.46 d (at 14 h of light) to 3.71 d (at 11 h of light). The number of egg clutches per female per day varied between 0.19 (at 11 h or 14 h of light) and 0.40 (at 15 h of light). The interval between egg clutches ranged from 1.29 d (at 14 h of light) to 2.07 d (at 11 h of light). The variation in the number of eggs and egg clutches per female of P. nigrispinus in relation to their age varied according to the photophase to which they were exposed. The fecundity of P. nigrispinus females was higher in 15 h of light. These informations serve as a valuable ecological variable in modeling population dynamics of P. nigripinus, both in the field and in the laboratory, thereby contributing to the success of A. argillacea control programs.

Research progress is reported on an artificial diet for adult Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae). The primary objective was to develop a system for screening antimicrobial peptides and other potential toxic proteins for activity against adults. The base diet was a sterilized solution of sucrose (30%) and yellow-green food coloring (0.5%) in tap water. All of the studies presented were conducted at 25°C, 75% RH, and a photoperiod of 14:10 (L:D) h. Adult psyllids were <7 d old when they were transferred to diet. Addition of the food coloring was necessary to prompt adults to feed. Among the feeding trials discussed, a mean of 69.1 ± 3.2% adults survived for 14 d on the base sucrose diet. Survival rates of males and females were similar. Adults feeding on the sucrose diet may have ingested less food than adults feeding on citrus leaf disks based on differences in quantities of adult excrements deposited in feeding chambers. However, survival of adults feeding on leaf disks over a 2-wk period was only marginally better than survival of adults feeding on the base sucrose diet, and final rates of survival of adults fed these two food sources were not significantly different.

Unusual life history traits of Aedes (Stegomyia) dybasi Bohart of Palau and Aedes (S.) maehleri Bohart of Yap, Micronesia, were observed in the laboratory. These species are unique in the subgenus Stegomyia in that they use pitchers of a carnivorous plant, Nepenthes mirabilis Druce, as larval habitats. Traits of Ae. dybasi were compared with two sympatric, container-breeding species, Aedes (S.) palauensis Bohart, a probable ancestor of Ae. dybasi, and Aedes (S.) hensilli Farner. Life history traits of Ae. dybasi differ distinctly from those of Ae. palauensis and Ae. hensilli in egg and adult stages as well as in the larva. The female is autogenous and lays a few but extremely large eggs that can neither resist desiccation nor postpone hatch. The latter two species take blood and produce many smaller eggs with desiccation resistance as usual in Stegomyia. Developmental time of eggs was shorter in Ae. dybasi, whereas that for larvae and pupae was longer. Ae. maehleri differs from other Stegomyia species in its early copulation, where males copulate with newly emerging females on the water surface. Females neither are autogenous nor take blood from human hands. Nepenthes pitchers that provide mosquito larvae with a unique environment could contribute to studying either converging or diverging patterns in mosquito evolution under phylogenic potential and constraints after acquisition of a new larval habitat.

Anatolian populations inhabit the southern latitudinal margin of species distribution ranges and therefore may be considered as “rear edge” populations. The genetic structures of such populations have critical importance in species responses to climatic change and are essential for long-term conservation genetics. Here, the genetic structure of Chorthippus parallelus (Zetterstedt) (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Gomphocerinae) populations in one of the main southern glacial refugium is investigated. Ten populations of C. parallelus from Anatolia have been studied by investigating single-copy nuclear DNA (Cpnl-1) fragment using polymerase chain reaction-single strand conformational polymorphism methods. The level of allelic number was high (total of 20 alleles in the locus, of which 11 were unique), but the level of gene flow among populations seemed to be low (F_IS = 0.090). However, most populations were genetically diverse (H_E > 0.5, A = 6.211, and n_e = 5.774). The level of genetic differentiation among populations was high (F_ST = 0.330). No statistically significant correlation between genetic diversity and spatial distribution was observed. The analysis of molecular variation analysis indicated that a large proportion of genetic variation was due to differentiation among individuals within populations. Genetic drift was a more likely cause of differentiation among populations rather than geographical distance. These results suggest that a presence of a “stable rear edge” population in contrary to the center-periphery model.

The maintenance of species diversity in modified and natural habitats is a central focus of conservation biology. The Iberá Nature Reserve (INR) protects highly diverse ecosystems in northeastern Argentina, including one of the largest freshwater wetlands in South America. Livestock grazing is one of the major disturbances to these ecosystems; however, its effect on ant diversity is poorly known. The objective of this work was to study the effect of savanna versus grassland and grazing on the structure and composition of subtropical terrestrial ants focusing on the particular response of the native red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren. Unbaited pitfall traps were used to capture worker ants in 25 grazed and 20 nongrazed sites. Fifty ant species were collected. The savanna showed more species, individuals, biomass, and functional groups of ants than the grassland. S. invicta was the most frequently captured (61.4%) and numerically dominant species; however Camponotus punctulatus punctulatus Mayr showed the highest biomass. Grazing simplified vegetation structure in both habitats, but its impact on vegetation seemed only to promote a higher total biomass especially in the grassland, and/or functional groups, favoring occurrence of hot-climate specialists in the savanna. This study revealed that habitat type strongly affected the organization of the terrestrial ant assemblages at the INR. However, as in other studies, we did not find clear evidence that habitat modification by grazing significantly affected terrestrial ant assemblages. The weak grazing influence could be the consequence of the short enclosure time as to recover the original ant communities, the differential response of ant species to habitat type, and/or the resilience of ants.

Lysophospholipase (LysoPLA) is one of the most important deacylating phospholipases. The LysoPLA gene from Antheraea pernyi (Guérin-Méneville) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) (ApLysoPLA), a well-known wild silkmoth, was isolated and characterized. The isolated ApLysoPLA cDNA sequence was 1151 bp, with an open reading frame of 663 bp encoding a polypeptide of 220 amino acids. The deduced ApLysoPLA protein sequence has 89 and 82% identity with Heliconius reato (L.) LysoPLA and Bombyx mori L. LysoPLA, respectively; however, it shows 66, 62, 50, and 47% identity with Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) LysoPLA, Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen) LysoPLA, Homo sapiens LysoPLA I, and Mus musculus LysoPLA I, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that lepidopteran LysoPLAs, including ApLysoPLA, might be a new member of the LysoPLA family. Semiquantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that the ApLysoPLA gene was transcribed during four developmental stages (egg, larva, pupa, and adult) and that it was present in all tissues tested (blood, midgut, silk glands, Malpighian tubules, spermaries, ovaries, brain, muscle, fat body, and body wall), with the most abundance in Malpighian tubules. Consequently, we refer that ApLysoPLA plays an important role in the development of A. pernyi.

Using scanning electron microscope, eight types of sensilla were found on the antennae of all castes in eight Bombus species (Hymenoptera: Apidae) collected in Jilin Province, China. The numbers of various types of antennal sensilla were analyzed by rough set data analysis method to determine which sensillum type might be useful in species and caste discrimination. The results showed that the number of sensilla basiconica A, B (s. t. a, s. t. b), sensilla trichodea A, B, C/ D (s. t. a, s. t. b, s. t. c/ d) and sensilla placodea (s. p) can be used in species discrimination, whereas only types s. t. a, s. t. b, and s. t. b are relevant in caste discrimination. Other types of sensilla had a lower taxonomic value for species and caste discrimination. This study provides a mathematic reference for the function research of antennal sensilla of Bombus determined by single-cell recording at both peripheral and antennal lobe (central nervous system) levels.

Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) are important pests of many fruits and vegetables. In this study, the external morphology, types, and distribution of antennal sensilla in both male and female adults of the six fruit fly species, including Bactrocera tau (Walker), Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett), Bactrocera minax (Enderlein), Bactrocera diaphora (Hendel), and Bactrocera scutellata (Hendel), were observed by using scanning electron microscopy. The antennae of the six fruit fly species consist of a basal scape, pedicel, and an elongated flagellum. Arising from the proximal dorsal ridge of flagellum there is an arista consisting of two short basal segments and a long thin distal segment. Six distinct morphological types of sensilla are recorded in both sexes, including microtrichial sensilla, sensilla chaetica, sensilla trichoid, sensilla basiconica, short type of sensilla basiconica, and sensilla coeloconica. The abundance and distribution of these six sensilla types on the antennae of both sexes are recorded. In addition, the possible functions of the above-mentioned sensilla types are discussed in light of previously published literature. The functions include the mechanoreception of microtrichial sensilla, sensilla chaetica, and sensilla trichoid; olfactory functions of sensilla basiconic, and sensilla coeloconica; and thermoreception of the short type of sensilla basiconica. Future functional antennal morphology and electrophysiological studies are needed to confirm these proposed functions.

Native to sub-Saharan Africa, Aethina tumida Murray (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) is now an invasive pest of honey bee, Apis mellifera L., colonies in Australia and North America. Knowledge about the introduction (s) of this beetle from Africa into and among the current ranges will elucidate pest populations and invasion pathways and contribute to knowledge of how a parasite expands in new populations. We examined genetic variation in adult beetle samples from the United States, Australia, Canada, and Africa by sequencing a 912-base pair region of the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene and screening 10 informative microsatellite loci. One Canadian introduction of small hive beetles can be traced to Australia, whereas the second introduction seems to have come from the United States. Beetles now resident in Australia were of a different African origin than were beetles in North America. North American beetles did not show covariance between two mitochondrial haplotypes and their microsatellite frequencies, suggesting that these beetles have a shared source despite having initial genetic structure within their introduced range. Excellent dispersal of beetles, aided in some cases by migratory beekeeping and the bee trade, seems to lead to panmixis in the introduced populations as well as in Africa.

Workers of the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), range in size from ≈0.5 to 1.5 mm in headwidth. Such size variation is thought to enable a more efficient division of labor, because some worker sizes may be better suited to performing particular tasks. Here, I focus on the task of nest defense, where efficiency and effectiveness may depend on having appropriately sized workers respond to particular types of threats. Specifically, I tested whether the size of responding workers differs between two magnitudes of nest disturbance (light, insect-like versus heavy, vertebrate-like), and I investigated how both sting length and the amount of venom workers contain, key defensive traits, vary with worker size. Workers responding to heavy, vertebrate-like nest disturbances were larger than those responding to light, insect-like disturbances. Between the light and heavy disturbances, the proportion of minor (small) workers responding dropped, whereas that of major (large) workers increased five-fold. Although the relationship between sting length and worker size is not directly proportional, the average sting length of majors is ≈0.20 mm (or 40%) greater than that of minors, with little overlap in range. The relationship between worker size and the amount of venom they contain is also positive. So, vertebrate-magnitude nest disturbances are met with greater proportions of large S. invicta workers than are insect-magnitude disturbances, and these larger workers bring with them longer stings and larger venom arsenals, which may increase their effectiveness against such relatively large, thicker-skinned threats.

Rice weevils, Sitophilus oryzae (L.), and maize weevils, Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), are important pests of stored grain. We have observed that rice weevil adults have a greater propensity than maize weevils to climb upward after physical disturbance of stored grain. Our objective was to quantify this climbing behavior in both species under a variety of environmental conditions to assess whether our anecdotal observations were correct. We confirmed that, after a disturbance, significantly more rice weevils climb than maize weevils when reared on fresh wheat, Triticum aestivum L., and corn, Zea mays L., and at relatively low and high population density. This greater climbing tendency is apparently exclusively due to S. oryzae males, which climb significantly more often than females. This work not only elucidates the divergent evolutionary histories of these sibling species but also may provide useful information for the monitoring and control of these stored grain pests.

Diabrotica spp. are serious pests of maize, Zea mays L., and have evolved resistance to cultural and chemical management practices. Transgenic maize producing a rootworm-toxic protein derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner provides a new approach to Diabrotica spp. management. Its use requires a refuge of nontransgenic maize to produce susceptible beetles able to mate with any resistant individuals developing on the transgenic variety to slow the evolution of resistance. Such evolution may simultaneously affect fitness related traits such as longevity, fecundity, and body size. We examined the mating behavior and reproductive biology of Diabrotica barberi Smith & Lawrence in relation to male and female body size. Large and small males were reciprocally paired to large and small females for comparison with average sized beetles. Neither the proportion of pairs that copulated nor the precopulation duration varied significantly with size category; however, the duration of copulation was shortest for large males crossed with small females and longest for the reciprocal cross. Large females lived the longest regardless of mating partner. Although small females mated to small males tended to lay the fewest eggs, size category did not significantly affect egg numbers per week of life during a 12-wk oviposition period. Egg production peaked during the first 4 to 5 wk and then steadily declined. These results suggest that resistance to transgenic maize, if associated with small body size, could provide a reproductive disadvantage for resistant females but not males that could prolong efficacy of the transgenic maize.