The classification, cladistics, and biogeography of taxa of the subgenus Anadaptus Casey (genus Anisodactylus Dejean) are analyzed. The subgenus is a monophyletic group. There are seven valid species, two with transcontinental ranges in North America, four in western North America, and one in central and southern Mexico. Anisodactylus nivalis Horn, 1880 is a new junior synonym of Anisodactylus alternans LeConte, 1851. Lectotypes designated are Anisodactylus alternans LeConte, 1851; Anisodactylus chalceus LeConte, 1859; Anisodactylus nivalis Horn, 1880; Anisodactylus rotundangulus Bates, 1878; and Anisodactylus viridescens LeConte, 1862. Geographic information system (GIS) techniques are used to analyze the biogeography of taxa. Species are concentrated in two biodiversity centers in the West. Biodiversity decreases sharply north of the larger biodiversity center because of cool summer temperatures. The species restricted to western North America have much more variation in character states than do species occurring elsewhere. Geographic ranges in eastern and central North America are much larger than those in most of the West because of broad areas of unfavorable habitats and more patchy climatic zones in the West. The shapes of geographical distributions are east-west elongated in eastern and central North America and predominantly north-south elongated in the West. Large regions of the current biodiversity centers had climates unfavorable for Anadaptus during the Wisconsin glacial period. If species originated and accumulated over long periods of geologic time in the West, centers of biodiversity there had to shift geographically in response to climatic changes.

The Drosophila buzzatii Patterson & Wheeler cluster (repleta group) includes seven species: D. buzzatii Patterson & Wheeler, D. koepferae Fontdevila et al. D. serido Vilela & Sene, D. seriema Tidon-Sklorz & Sene, D. borborema Vilela & Sene, D. sp. D and D. sp. B. These flies are widely distributed in South America outside the Amazon region. The systematics of this cluster has been based on chromosomal inversions and the aedeagus is used to identify species. These species use necrotic cactus tissues as breeding sites. The current hypothesis of differentiation and speciation of these species is related to expansion and retraction of cactus distribution in South America during Quaternary climatic cycles. We investigated the phylogenetic relationship among species of this cluster based on the mtDNA COI gene region and compared it with the relationship established using classical markers. The resulting phylogenetic hypothesis indicated that this cluster is a monophyletic group that can be divided into two sets of species: the one including D. buzzatii and D. koepferae and other with the remaining five species. The latter can also be divided into two clades. Although this branching pattern is similar to the one established by classical markers, some disagreement involving populations was observed that suggests secondary contact between populations of different species. The distribution pattern of COI haplotypes is partitioned geographically, which could be the result of limited gene flow between groups of species suggesting a longer history of differentiation than previously hypothesized for D. buzzatii cluster species.

A cladistic analysis of Eubriancinae was performed, using 21 characters from external morphology (eight from larvae, four from pupae, and nine from adults), and considering Psepheninae as the outgroup. The analysis yielded nine equally parsimonious cladograms (47 steps, CI = 56, RI = 68), and a strict consensus cladogram was calculated (51 steps, CI = 56, RI = 61). The result suggests that the phylogenetic relationships between genera within the subfamily are monophyletic, despite their ecological diversity. The strict consensus cladogram indicates that the genus Heibrianax is paraphyletic to Eubrianax. The monophyly of Heibrianax Eubrianax is supported by three synapomorphic characters. Therefore, Heibrianax is regarded as a junior synonym of Eubrianax. The current article also deals with some members of Eubrianax, although they display significant difference from other representatives of the genus. The evolution of characters in the immature stages is discussed. Eubrianax pellucidus species group and E. serratus species group are treated. Eubrianax manakikikuse amamiensis Satô, 1965 is raised to specific rank. A new subspecies, Eubrianax manakikikuse kimurai ssp. nov., and a new species, Eubrianax serratus sp. nov., are described. Keys to genera of the subfamily, based on adults, larvae, pupae, and a checklist of the species are provided.

Dicranocephalus aroonanus new species, is the first member of the family Stenocephalidae to be formally described from Australia. Its relationships are discussed. Dorsal habitus illustrations and drawings of the male genital capsule and parameres are provided.

This work is a contribution to the Psychodidae fauna of Belize, in the subfamilies Bruchomyiinae and Phlebotominae. Nemapalpus mopani De León was recorded and represents the first record of a Bruchomyiinae in Belize. The subfamily Phlebotominae is represented by 22 nominated species, but Lutzomyia serrana (Damasceno & Arouck) and L. aclydifera (Fairchild & Hertig) are recorded for the first time in this country. Lutzomyia manciola, a new species, is described, bringing the number of phlebotomine species in Belize to 25, including the three previously recorded species of Brumptomyia França & Parrot. Keys for the identification of males and females of all 22 Belizean species of Lutzomyia are included.

The complex biogeography of the 13- and 17-yr periodical cicadas offers important opportunities for testing hypotheses of Magicicada evolution and ecology. However, misinterpretation of stragglers as on-schedule emergences, combined with systematic biases in search effort and the use of cross-generational brood maps, likely results in erroneous edge extension of adjacent broods and the appearance of sympatric shadow broods in published maps. Substantial recent changes in brood distributions have been inferred from the Magicicada historical record, the most significant being the decline and extinction of 17-yr brood X in the midwestern United States, the widespread expansion and contraction of 17-yr brood VI and 13-yr brood XXIII, and the displacement of brood XIII 17-yr cicadas in Illinois by 13-yr brood XIX in Illinois. Reanalysis of the historical data with an awareness of straggler-induced error suggests instead that brood distributions in these cases have remained stable.

Effect of temperature on developmental duration and demographic parameters of Tetranychus urticae Koch and Eotetranychus carpini borealis (Ewing) were investigated at five constant temperatures. Immature development for T. urticae was shorter than that of E. carpini borealis. A major difference in developmental time and fecundity rates between the two species was observed at 30°C, where T. urticae had the shortest developmental time and highest daily fecundity compared with E. carpini borealis. Developmental times for the two spider mite species fell within the range of developmental times reported for other spider mites. Life tables were constructed for both species. The intrinsic rate of increase for T. urticae ranged from 0.08 at 15°C to 0.321 at 30°C, whereas that for E. carpini borealis ranged from 0.065 at 15°C to 0.151 at 30°C. Temperature-development data were fitted to a nonlinear model. This model allowed the detection of some basic differences between the two spider mite species. In addition, simple linear regression was used to estimate lower developmental thresholds and degree-day requirements for development. Those data were in agreement with field observations.

Cardboard bands were placed on pear and apple trees at each of three sites to act as overwintering shelters for spiders. Bands were placed on the trees in late August, at three heights on the tree. One-third of the bands was collected in January to determine what taxa of spiders overwintered in the shelters. The remaining bands at each site were collected and replaced at weekly intervals between late August and early December to monitor phenology of movement into the shelters. More than 2,900 spiders in 10 families were recovered from the winter-collected set of bands. Spiders were collected from all three sampling heights in the trees. The majority of spiders were juveniles, although adults of some Salticidae [especially Pelegrina aeneola (Curtis) and Phanias sp.] were fairly common. The dominant families were Philodromidae (primarily Philodromus spp.) and Salticidae (primarily P. aeneola), comprising 66 and 28%, respectively, of the total specimens. In the weekly collections, >5,600 bands were sampled during the study producing >6,000 spiders represented by 12 families and 30 identified genera. Dominant taxa in the weekly collected bands included Philodromus cespitum (Walckenaer), P. aeneola, Xysticus spp. (Thomisidae), Sassacus papenhoei Peckham and Peckham (Salticidae), Phidippus spp. (Salticidae), and Anyphaena pacifica Banks (Anyphaenidae). Of these taxa, Xysticus spp., S. papenhoei, and A. pacifica were very uncommon in the winter-collected bands, and we infer from these results that these spiders used the bands as temporary refuges only, and overwintered elsewhere. Data obtained from the weekly collected bands suggested that Philodromus spp., Dictyna spp., P. aeneola, and Cheiracanthium mildei L. Koch entered overwintering shelters during the interval between mid-October and mid- to late November. Pear and apple blocks at the same site were more similar in community composition than a common crop species at two different sites. More spiders were recovered from bands placed in the unmanaged and organically managed orchards than from apple and pear blocks that received insecticides during the growing season.

Longevity, duration of the oviposition period, realized fecundity, potential fecundity, and egg fertility of the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner), were examined in the laboratory under three different adult diet regimes. All parameters were significantly reduced for the water-only diet compared with 10% honey or sucrose diets, except fertility, which could not be measured after 5 d because of high mortality of water-fed females. Oviposition was highest the night after mating and decreased in a logarithmic manner thereafter. In the carbohydrate-fed moths, 92% of lifetime realized fecundity occurred by the fourth night of oviposition. Although our data indicate that carbohydrates in the adult diet can increase realized and potential fecundity, most of the lifetime complement of oocytes (91%) is present at the time of eclosion from the pupa. Pupal weight was significantly correlated with lifetime potential fecundity, explaining 37–66% of the variation among moths depending on adult diet, and this effect was substantial. Taken together, our results suggest that the bulk of variation in realized fecundity is generated in the larval stage, provided suitable oviposition substrate is available for the adults. This information will be important in understanding population dynamics of beet armyworm and to improving our ability to predict population outbreaks from sampling data.

CO₂ release and water loss of unmated alates of Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar), collected immediately before flight, were examined using flow-through respirometry. Whole body lipid and water content and cuticular permeability were also determined. Two models were used to estimate cuticular surface area for permeability calculation. CO₂ release and water loss cycled concurrently in 90.9 and 66.7% of the recordings for males and females, respectively. Level of cycling of the recordings was determined by use of the coefficient of variability of the V˙_CO2. Cyclic traces (40.4 ± 3.4 for females and 53.7 ± 2.1% for males) had greater coefficient of variability than acyclic traces (31.7 ± 6.1 and 40.5 ± 3.2%, for females and males, respectively) from both genders. Mean overall V˙_CO2 did not vary significantly with alate gender. Lipid content (≈12%) was not significantly different between genders of R. flavipes alates. However, cuticular permeability values varied depending on the model for determining surface area used. Cuticular permeability values calculated using Meeh’s formula were comparable to those reported in the literature (28.3 and 36.1 μg H₂O lost cm⁻² h⁻¹ mmHg⁻¹, for females and males, respectively).

Reproductive characteristics of a northeastern Kansas population of the fritillary Speyeria idalia (Drury) were studied. Hemolymph juvenile hormone (JH) titers, ovarian development, and fat body utilization were monitored weekly in adult females over their entire 1997 flight period, which extended from mid-June to early October. Dissections of female reproductive systems revealed that S. idalia females mate just once, soon after they emerge in mid- to late June. Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric determinations of juvenile hormone suggested that they undergo a reproductive diapause through mid-August related to the absence of or very low titers of juvenile hormone. Oogenesis and fat body depletion do not commence until late August/early September, soon after which oviposition occurs. The onset of oogenesis coincides with a rapid rise in hemolymph titers of JH I, JH II, and JH III. The predominant juvenile hormone homolog was JH II, but both JH I and JH III exhibited smaller, concomitant peaks. Four fundamentally different lepidopteran reproductive strategies have been recognized based on various reproductive characteristics and the type of gonadotropic hormones used to stimulate oogenesis. Speyeria idalia exhibits a type of reproductive strategy that has not been documented in Lepidoptera, typified by protandry, female monandry, long-lived (>8 wk) females that feed throughout their adult lives, greatly delayed oogenesis that occurs late in adult life, and apparent juvenile hormone control of gonadotropic processes. This reproductive strategy appears to be an adaptation to the phenology of larval host plants, namely coordinating the life cycle with that of the seasonally restricted violets on which larval survival of this monophagous species depends.

A meridic diet (Ceratitis capitata #1) containing corncob as a bulking agent was developed and found comparable to diets currently used for rearing the larvae of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann). The composition of C. capitata #1 diet (mg/50 g diet) is essential amino acids 636; arginine, 106.8; histidine, 45.6; isoleucine, 56.4; leucine, 108; lysine, 58.8; methionine, 27.6; phenylalanine, 70.8; threonine, 54; tryptophan, 28.8; valine, 79.2; non-essential amino acids 964.8; alanine, 78; aspartic acid, 112.8; cystine, 40.8; glutamic acid, 392.4; glycine, 90; proline, 124.8; serine, 78; tyrosine, 48; ribonucleic acid, 100; vitamins, 5.35; (thiamine [vitamin B₁], 1.0; riboflavin [vitamin B₂], 1.0; nicotinic acid, 1.0; pantothenic acid, 1.0; pyridoxine [vitamin B₆], 1.0; biotin, 0.1; folic acid, 0.25); anti-microbials, 256 (methylparaben), 100; sodium benzoate, 100; p-amino benzoic acid, 1.0; streptomycin, 50; oxytetracycline, HCl 5; cholesterol, 40; inositol, 10; choline chloride, 20; minerals (McCollum and Davis Salt mixture No. 185), 100; citric acid (acidulant), 500; sucrose, 2000; corncob grit (screen size 30/80), 12,000; distilled water, 33,000 and pH 3.5. The omission of all 10 essential amino acids from the meridic diet mixture inhibited development past the first instar. Deletion of eight non-essential amino acids, 10 vitamins, sugar, or ribonucleic acid delayed larval growth. In addition, larvae reared on diet without non-essential amino acids, vitamins, sugar or cholesterol resulted in pupal weight loss. Pupal recovery and adult emergence were affected by the removal of 10 vitamins or cholesterol from the C. capitata #1 diet. Flight ability was decreased in the absence of 10 vitamins. No significant effects were shown in diet lacking salt mixture.

A comprehensive analysis of the ultrastructure of the delphacid rice pest Tagosodes orizicolus (Muir) was undertaken using scanning electron microscopy to resolve taxonomic problems in the distinction of females and nymphs from other specimens commonly found in rice fields of tropical America. This research includes a detailed description of female genitalia and the ultrastructural variations observed during nymphal development. Ultrastructure of the mouthparts, specifically the stylets; and the genitalia of the male are also described. Important ultrastructural details were revealed, such as the presence of microtrichia and sensillae, which are not clear when observed by light microscopy. The adults have numerous sensillae; immatures have bell-shaped chemoreceptors along the dorsal area, structures that are absent in the adult stage. Strong differences were observed between the first instar and older nymphs, such as stamen-like setae, wider frons, convex clypeus observed in the first and second instars; whereas conical eyes and an oar-shaped legs were observed only in the first instar.

Morphological traits of the pretarsa, especially the tarsal claws and arolia, of 15 arboreal or ground-dwelling species of the genus Pachycondyla demonstrate that two types of morphologies exist. All of the arboreal and three of the ground-dwelling species have a well-developed arolium in the form of an adhesive pad, whereas the others do not. Moreover, the tarsal claws are spread and horn-shaped in the species of the first group, whereas they are straight and relatively close together in the species without the adhesive pad. The ability to walk upside down is strictly correlated to the presence of the pad. If a large adhesive pad cannot be considered as a morphological adaptation to arboreal life, it, at least, constitutes an indispensable characteristic for the advent of arboreal behavior.

Résumé L’étude morphologique du prétarse, particulièrement des griffes et de l’arolium, de 15 espèces de fourmis terricoles ou arboricoles du genre Pachycondyla (Formicidae: Ponerinae) a permis de mettre en évidence deux grands types de morphologie. Toutes les espèces arboricoles ainsi que trois espèces terricoles possèdent un arolium bien développé sous la forme d’une pelote adhésive, alors que celle-ci est toujours absente chez les autres espèces. De plus, les griffes sont écartées et en forme de cornes chez les espèces du premier groupe, alors qu’elles sont plutôt droites et rapprochées chez les espèces ne possédant pas de pelotes adhésives. La capacité se déplacer à l’envers, sous les feuilles par exemple, est strictement corrélée à l’existence des pelotes adhésives. Si les pelotes adhésives ne peuvent pas être considérées comme une adaptation a la vie arboricole, elles représentent tout de même un élément indispensable à l’apparition d’un tel mode de vie.

Scanning electron microscopy observations are presented for freshly hatched nymphs and adults of Zelus longipes L., an hemipteran species of the family Reduviidae (assassin bugs). The emphasis is on the structure and distribution of pores and different types of hairs covering the tibiae of the forelegs in relation to a viscous substance associated with them. The substance is instrumental in catching prey. In both developmental stages of the animal, the legs are abundantly covered with two major types of hairs. There are the so-called sundew hairs characterized by spines on their upper part. The legs also carry smooth peg-like setae. In addition, the adult animals show a few smooth, needle-shaped hairs. At this developmental stage, the surface of the legs has developed ring-like invaginations. The animals catch prey using their raised forelegs that are covered with a layer of sticky substance. It is assumed that the sundew hairs in combination with the peg-like setae play a role in mechanically stabilizing the film of sticky substance covering the legs in both developmental stages. The ring-like invaginations found only in the adult animals are interpreted as the external openings of integumental glands, responsible for the production of the substance. The openings are missing in freshly hatched nymphs, and it is assumed that they use the sticky substance deposited by the female at the bases of the laid eggs to set up their sticky traps.

Males of Lucanus maculifemoratus Motschulsky are markedly variable in size of body and heads. In this study, we investigated the possible causes that affect the development of the male heads and genitalia by comparing variability of weight among body parts and allometry in each part to body size. Genitalia varied least in weight among males, and the frequency distribution of their weight was approximately normal. In contrast, the frequency distribution of head weight exhibited a conspicuous skew. Significant positive allometry was found for heads, whereas genitalia showed significant negative allometry. Heads that are used for fighting are allometrically highly variable, whereas genitalia are highly stable, suggesting variable strategies for obtaining mates while maintaining equally sexually functional genitalia. The low variability and low allometric coefficient with body size for genitalia may indicate that the development mechanism for genitalia is separated from that for other body parts, as a result of sexual selection.

Bristle distribution along the wing margin of the small white cabbage butterfly, Pieris rapae (L.), was studied by examining the whole mount of the wing with a light microscope, after removing the scales around the bristles. The examination illustrated that the bristles in the forewing are distributed along its anterior and lateral margins, and those in the hindwing along its anterior, lateral, and posterior margins. All bristles are located in the ventral surfaces of the wings. The bristle distribution in the Pieris wing is compared with that of the microlepidopteran wings, and discussed in terms of wing movement.

Substrate-borne vibrational signals (songs) were recorded from the green stink bug, Acrosternum hilare (Say) and the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.). Female A. hilare emitted one song type in the calling phase of mating behavior, and the production of this song was stimulated by male presence or calling. The temporal characteristics of the pulses and pulse trains of this song were similar to the narrow-band type of pulse trains that constituted the N. viridula female calling song. Male A. hilare produced two different songs, each associated with a different phase of mating behavior. In the calling phase, males produced a song composed of regularly repeated, complex pulse trains whose temporal structure resembled that of the N. viridula male courtship song. In the courtship phase of behavior, males of A. hilare emitted a song that terminated female singing. The pulses of this song had similar temporal characteristics to those of the narrow-band type of the N. viridula male calling song. Immediately after initiating copulation, A. hilare pairs emitted another song, which had no counterpart in the repertoire of N. viridula or other pentatomid species that have been examined. In contrast, males of A. hilare did not appear to produce a song equivalent to the N. viridula male rival song, and neither sex of A. hilare produced songs equivalent to the broad-band pulses and pulse trains found within male and female N. viridula calling songs. Orientation of males toward females was mediated by the female calling song, which had similar spectral and temporal characteristics in both species. Male songs of the two species, although they shared some spectral characteristics, differed in temporal structure and in the contexts in which they were emitted.

Larval sawfly foraging behavior is understudied in comparison to defoliating Lepidoptera, yet the parallel lifestyles of these groups suggest that similar behavioral and physiological adaptations may have arisen in response to common selective pressures. The red-headed pine sawfly, Neodiprion lecontei (Fitch), is a gregarious diprionid that forages nomadically on a variety of pine species. We investigated the behavioral basis of group foraging in N. lecontei, in particular trail following and colony foraging dynamics, in order to better understand the mechanisms contributing to group cohesion in this species. We show that N. lecontei is, like many social Lepidoptera, a trail follower, showing a strong preference for substrate contacted by foraging conspecifics. This may be the first study to demonstate trail following behavior in a social sawfly. In ad libitum group movement studies, larval groups did not colonize new patches in a single migratory pulse but migrated over a period of hours solitarily or in small groups. Foraging groups remained largely cohesive yet frequently fissioned small groups that dynamically recoalesced during larval development. We speculate that N. lecontei larvae remain cohesive by cueing on a marker derived from their pine host and deposited passively by migrating conspecifics.

Orb-weaving spiders modulate their web-building behavior in response to changes in their situation (internal or external state), and this capacity is expected to directly influence fitness. To understand the rules underlying the investment devoted to web construction, we need to quantify precisely the costs and benefits associated with web-building behavior. The sticky silk (capture spiral) is costly to produce and to set up and is a limiting factor in web building. Thus, it would be useful to have an efficient formula to calculate the total capture thread length (CTL) produced, which reflects the investment devoted to foraging activities. On the basis of web photographs we tested nine formulae on webs built by three spider species: Zygiella x-notata (Clerck), Araneus diadematus Clerck, and Larinioides sclopetarius (Clerck). We compared the calculated lengths with lengths directly measured from photographs. We showed that the most efficient formula (CTLvh) involved data recorded along both the horizontal and vertical axes. Because of its accuracy for all species tested, together with its ease of use in the field, this formula represents a useful tool for behavioral ecology studies on spiders.

Previous research revealed that exposure to the synthetic attractant trimedlure increased the mating success of male Mediterranean fruit flies, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann). In the current study, I investigated whether a similar effect resulted from male exposure to α-copaene, a naturally occurring compound found in many host plants, and two α-copaene-containing essential oils, angelica seed oil (Angelica archangelica L.) and ginger root oil, (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). For all three substances, mature males were exposed to 20 μl of the attractant over a 6-h period and then held 2 d before testing. In field-cage trials, treated males (exposed to attractants) obtained significantly more matings than control males (no exposure) for all three substances. In an additional experiment with ginger root oil, treated males prevented from contacting the oil directly (i.e., exposed to the odor only) still exhibited a mating advantage over control males. Discussion centers on the influence of α-copaene-bearing plants on the mating system of C. capitata and the possibility of using attractants in prerelease exposure of males to increase the effectiveness of sterile insect release programs.