Darwin developed his theory of evolution based on an analogy between artificial selection by breeders of his day and “natural selection.” For Darwin, selection included what biologists came to see as being composed of (1) phenotypic selection of individuals based on phenotypic differences, and, when these are based on heritable genotypic differences, (2) genetic response between generations, which can result in (3) evolution (cumulative directional genetic response over generations). The use of the term “selection” in biology and plant breeding today reflects Darwin's assumption—phenotypic selection is only biologically significant when it results in evolution. In contrast, research shows that small-scale, traditionally-based farmers select seed as part of an integrated production and consumption system in which selection is often not part of an evolutionary process, but is still useful to farmers. Extending Darwin's analogy to farmers can facilitate communication between farmers, biologists, and plant breeders to improve selection and crop genetic resource conservation.

When analyzing sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) remains, which are often carbonized, archaeobotanists commonly differentiate between wild and domesticated achenes and seeds based on the measured length (L) and width (W) or the calculated index L*W. Carbonization reduces the dimensions. To compensate for these reductions, archaeobotanists use a single correction factor proposed by Richard Yarnell (1978) for all cases. The use of a single correction factor can bias the reconstructed dimensions as carbonization is a highly variable process. The current study determines the relationship between carbonization and the dimensions of length and width. Measurements established that a decrease of 2.5–22.5% in achene length and 10–29% in achene width can occur, depending on temperature, heating rate, and variety. For seeds, temperature is of most importance, and shrinkage ranges from 0–27% for the length and from 0–20% for the width. These ranges make the use of a single correction factor problematic. A method is developed in which reflectance (an optical property applied in coal technology to determine coal rank) is used to measure the carbonization temperature, and in turn the shrinkage can be calculated. Subsequently, correction factors are calculated to reconstruct the original length and width. When applied to an assemblage of carbonized sunflower achenes, the newly developed method shows that the Yarnell single correction factor may bias the dimensions towards classifications of “wild” or “ruderal” forms of sunflower.

Morphometry is the science of measuring two-dimensional and three-dimensional aspects and parameters of object morphology, including size, shape, and tomography. Compared to conventional measurement, computer-assisted morphometry is exponentially faster, more accurate, more precise, and more efficient while providing a substantially broader spectrum of measurements of morphological parameters. Objective quantification replaces subjective, perception-based typology in the analysis of variation.

Morphometric data from seed reference populations representing more than 1,000 taxa were used to study patterns of morphological variation and to assess related analytical assumptions and basic protocols. Many assumptions about the nature of seed morphology were found suspect and current minimum standards for representative reference seed types and control populations are inadequate and unreliable.

Standard plots of area size distributions of wild and domestic seed populations revealed a consistent difference in histogram shape. Conventional descriptive statistical values were insensitive to the differences. Subjecting the histograms to morphometric shape measurements revealed specific shape factors that provided consistent values sensitive to the difference. A new quantitative method for distinguishing wild and domestic seed populations based on measurements of the shape of the distribution of morphological variation, rather than on typology or increase in mean size, was developed and initially tested. It is potentially applicable to the assessment of archaeological seed assemblages in studies of the history of ethnobotany and especially agriculture.

This is the first report on Mazahua knowledge and classification of plants and mushrooms and the roles of these resources in the local economy in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico. A total of 213 useful plant species and 31 species of edible mushrooms were recorded. Fruits of Prunus serotina, Rubus liebmanii, and Crataegus mexicana were the main wild fruit gathered by people (7.47, 4.40, and 1.82 tons of fruits per year, respectively), whereas their availability in the territory of the village was approximately 302.6, 6.0, and 34.188 tons. Brassica campestris, Rorippa nasturtiumaquaticum, Chenopodium berlandieri, and Amaranthus hybridus were the principal non-cultivated greens consumed by people (4.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 tons per year, while 23.6, 3.78, traces, and 46.0 tons, respectively, were available). Extraction of medicinal plants is low but gathering of Ternstroemia spp. flowers endangers local populations of these plants. All households of the village used fuelwood (1,767.2 tons per year), mainly of pine and oak species. Strategies for sustainable use of these resources are discussed.

Ephedra sinica Stapf (commonly, Chinese ephedra) grows mainly in Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and other regions of northern China. The stems of Chinese ephedra have been called the world's oldest medicine; other uses remain to be reported. Among the Mongolian people, in addition to medical applications, the fleshy bracts of the seed cones (or “fruit”) are traditionally used as food, fresh or dried, in several ways; for example, the fruit is used as a refined sugar, a cheese condiment, and a tea substitute. In this paper, we analyze the fruit's nutritional components: moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, carbohydrate, ash, pectin, vitamins, fatty acids, mineral elements, and amino acids. Ethnobotanical and nutritional component information may indicate that the plant has potential for development as a special food plant.