In many taxa of squamate reptiles, thermal conditions during incubation affect fitness-relevant phenotypic traits of the offspring. Therefore, a gravid female can enhance the fitness of her offspring by selecting appropriate thermal regimes. The maternal manipulation hypothesis (MMH) attributes phylogenetic shifts in a broad array of maternal traits (such as nest-site selection, prolonged uterine retention of eggs, and shivering thermogenesis) to selective advantages driven by embryonic developmental plasticity: mothers enhance the viability of their offspring by providing “better” incubation conditions. In Herpetologica 68:147-159, Schwarzkopf and Andrews (2012) pointed out an alternative possibility: that reproduction-induced shifts in maternal thermoregulatory tactics have evolved because they enhance maternal, not offspring, fitness. Although possible on logical grounds, this alternative hypothesis is inconsistent with available evidence on squamate biology, especially with the diversity of thermoregulatory modifications induced by reproduction. Most reproduction-associated shifts in maternal thermoregulation likely reflect benefits to offspring (as posited by the MMH), or are nonadaptive consequences of ecological shifts that are enforced by reproduction.

During reproduction, females often modify their behavior relative to the nonreproductive condition. These changes are frequently attributed to maternal efforts to optimize offspring development and survival (i.e., the maternal manipulation hypothesis). However, Schwarzkopf and Andrews (2012) recently challenged this concept as oversimplified, emphasizing that females should optimize their own lifetime fitness, and therefore maternal efforts may be directed at the female's future reproductive effort in addition, or even in contrast, to current reproductive effort. To provide insight into the relative importance of current versus future reproductive effort in shaping maternal behavior, we systematically explore a single study system—pythons. Pythons show distinct maternal behaviors during gravidity (modified basking effort), peri-oviposition (nest site selection), and postoviposition (egg brooding). By examining each component, we reveal that python maternal effort is predominantly aimed at current offspring. Yet, at times, females will make decisions that benefit their future reproductive potential at a cost to their current effort. Therefore, maternal behavior likely reflects a focused effort to maximize fitness through optimizing current reproductive investment, but such effort is not without consideration of future reproductive potential.

Females should behave in ways that maximize lifetime reproductive success (the “selfish mother” hypothesis [SMH]). Very often, this will mean that female behavior during reproduction maximizes fitness of the current batch of offspring. In some cases, however, females may maximize lifetime reproductive success by behaving in ways that are neutral, or even detrimental, to current offspring fitness. The “maternal manipulation hypothesis” (MMH), proposed by Shine (1995), argues that females should behave in ways that maximize fitness of the current batch of offspring. We argued, however, that if researchers focus solely on measuring benefits to offspring of female behavior during reproduction, they will not consider the possibility that female behavior is neutral or even detrimental to offspring fitness, thereby missing an important facet of behavior during reproduction. Here we reply to comments by Shine (2012) and DeNardo et al. (2012), mainly to emphasize our point that contrasting the MMH and the SMH as if they operated exclusively and independently is not productive, because females enhance their lifetime reproductive success by enhancing current offspring fitness or their own long-term fitness, or both.

Drought represents a significant stressor to aquatic animals. However, empirical data regarding the response of many aquatic animals, particularly amphibians, to drought are limited. The southeastern United States experienced a supraseasonal drought in 2007–2008, which provided an opportunity to examine the resistance and resilience of salamanders to drought. In this study, we used 5 yr of presence–absence data at 17 first-order streams and 61 mo of mark–recapture data at one stream to examine the effects of drought on occupancy and vital rates of the salamander Desmognathus fuscus (Northern Dusky Salamander). We tested three hypotheses regarding the effects of drought: larvae would decrease in occupancy during drought conditions, but adult occupancy would remain stable; adult temporary emigration rates would be greatest during supraseasonal drought conditions; and adult survivorship would be equal or nearly equal during nondrought conditions and drought conditions due to higher rates of temporary emigration. We found that adult salamander occupancy remained stable through the 5 yr of sampling; however, larval salamander occupancy decreased by an average of 30% during the supraseasonal drought. We found that adult temporary emigration probabilities were twice as high during supraseasonal drought conditions than during nondrought or typical drought conditions. Monthly survival of adults was relatively high during nondrought (S = 0.89 ± 0.02), typical drought (S = 0.97 ± 0.02), and severe drought conditions (S = 0.90 ± 0.01). Our findings suggest that high survivorship of adult D. fuscus likely buffers the negative effects of drought on larvae and high rates of temporary emigration allow adult salamanders to be resilient to supraseasonal drought conditions.

Recent studies have found that Gopher Tortoise, Gopherus polyphemus, populations in southern Mississippi exhibit low recruitment, due in part to very low hatching success of their eggs. We sought to determine if the cause(s) of this low hatching success was related to egg quality (intrinsic factors), unsuitability of the nest environment (extrinsic factors), or a combination of the two. In 2003, hatching success was monitored simultaneously for eggs from the same clutches that were incubated in the laboratory and left to incubate in nests. A subset of randomly chosen eggs from each clutch was incubated in the laboratory under physical conditions that were known to be conducive to successful hatching to estimate the proportion of eggs that were capable of hatching in a controlled setting. Hatching success in the laboratory was compared with that of eggs incubated in natural nests to estimate the proportion of eggs that failed to hatch presumably from extrinsic factors. Laboratory hatching success was 58.8%, suggesting that roughly 40% of the eggs were intrinsically incapable of hatching even when incubated under controlled conditions. Hatching success in natural nests, 16.7%, was significantly lower than hatching success in the laboratory, suggesting that approximately 42.1% of eggs were capable of hatching but failed to hatch due to some extrinsic aspect(s) of the nest environment. Thus, the low hatching success of Gopher Tortoise eggs in southern Mississippi appears to be attributable to a combination of intrinsic (egg quality) and extrinsic (nest environment) factors.

The Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) is a keystone species whose burrowing activities are of critical importance for upland ecosystems. Perhaps no age class is as enigmatic or vulnerable as hatchlings, and understanding the survival dynamics of hatchlings is critical for the parameterization of population viability models that will help guide adaptive management of this threatened species. Meta-analysis is a particularly useful technique for integrating results of published studies that provide different estimates of a single parameter of interest. A summary value from multiple studies could therefore provide a more representative estimate of a vital rate across heterogeneous study populations. We estimated hatchling survivorship from a natural population in North Florida using hatchling cohorts from a 3-yr telemetry study. To provide continuous estimates of survival through time, we fit weekly telemetry data to Weibull survival curves. We then incorporated the least biased estimate of hatchling survival from the field study into a meta-analysis, which included values from four other published studies, to generate a single summary estimate of hatchling survivorship through the first year of life. With the field study, we found significant differences in survival among years (P = 0.0073), release months (P = 0.0022), and hatching months (P = 0.0053). Hazard ratios (HR) indicated that hatchlings released in November were approximately 70% less likely to die within the first year of life than were hatchlings released in September (HR_Nov = 0.285, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.148–0.549). After incorporating our field estimates of survival with published estimates from other studies, we estimated the overall annual survival rate of hatchlings at 0.128 (CI = 0.040–0.340). Many factors, such as habitat and predator composition, may contribute to heterogeneities in hatchling survival among tortoise populations. Therefore, we suggest that the use of a composite estimate rather than a single estimate would provide for a more representative and less biased description of hatchling survival. We recommend the use of this summary estimate of hatchling survival for future parameterization of population projection models.

The Green Anole (Anolis carolinensis) has three stereotyped head bob displays (labeled A, B, and C) which it differentially uses during directed hetero- and consexual exchanges. We found free-ranging males advertise (i.e., nondirected signaling) with the same three displays in a complex but consistent manner. From videotapes of 10 adult males recorded across breeding and postbreeding seasons, we analyzed 2308 nondirected displays from two functional subsets of the advertisement context—”monitor” (stationary males signaling from monitoring sites) and “travel” (males signaling while moving between monitoring sites). Using five hypotheses to guide the analysis, we found breeding males (1) used all three display types during both monitor and travel; (2) averaged mostly C displays during monitor (ratio of C:A B = 4:1); (3) increased A and B displays four-fold during travel (C:A B = 1:1); (4) averaged a four-fold lower display rate during monitor than during travel (displays/min = 0.8 vs. 3.5, respectively); (5) averaged three-fold more volleys of displays (i.e., a rapid succession of displays) during monitor than during travel (ratio of volleys:singly performed displays = 1.7:1 vs. 0.5:1, respectively); (6) averaged longer volleys during monitor than during travel (displays/volley = 3.3 vs. 2.5, respectively); and (7) appended the “shudderbobbing” modifier (rapid, shallow bobs) to a third of all displays. Males maintained these seven tendencies into the postbreeding, but with much reduced frequencies. The nondirected signaling during monitor and travel are respectively similar to that of long- and short-range aggressive signaling used by contesting males, and bears little similarity to the signaling males use toward females. From our data and those of other studies, we argue that males intend their nondirected signaling for an unidentified male audience (i.e., intrasexually selected), and not for an unidentified female audience (i.e., intersexually selected).

Spatial ecology is crucial to determining how animals exploit resources in their environment. Snakes display highly varied energetic and space use strategies; we hypothesized that snakes with higher energy demands are more mobile to fulfill their energy needs. We studied the spatial ecology of two syntopic colubrid snakes (Hierophis viridiflavus and Zamenis longissimus) that show a marked divergence in energetics. Specifically, we predicted that H. viridiflavus should be more active than Z. longissimus because of its higher energy requirements. Because reproductive status also influences movement patterns, we investigated its effect within each species. We indeed found that H. viridiflavus moved more frequently and covered longer distances during the postreproductive period, probably because of foraging activity. Both species displayed similar activity during the reproductive period, however. The extended movements during the reproductive period may be related to mate-searching in males and egg-laying in females.

A new species of miniaturized froglet (genus Brachycephalus) is described from Morro Prumirim in the municipality of Ubatuba, São Paulo, southeastern Brazil. Specimens were collected from the leaf litter at approximately 800 m above sea level. The new species is distinguished from all its congeners by the combination of the following characters: snout–vent length 8.7–13.4 mm; skin on head and dorsum with dermal ossification; general color orange, with a narrow brownish vertebral stripe and belly without spots; and skull, spinal processes of sacral and pre-sacral vertebrae, and process of the fourth vertebra hyperossified. Canonical variates analysis of linear body measurement demonstrates that the new species is easily discriminated from other Brachycephalus species with which it shares an intermediate condition of hyperossification.

The species Rhabdosoma microrhynchum (now Atractus microrhynchus) was originally described based on a single specimen collected by the Orton Expedition at “Guayaquil,” in the Guayas province on the Pacific coast of Ecuador. The holotype is currently lost and all specimens previously referred to this species were misidentified on the basis of material from Peruvian Amazonia. While examining museum collections and conducting fieldwork in the Pacific lowlands of Ecuador and Peru, we found specimens assignable to A. microrhynchus. In this study, we report the morphological variation in these new specimens of A. microrhynchus and evaluate the taxonomic status of the Amazonian species previously confused with it. We restrict the concept of A. microrhynchus to the Pacific lowland populations from Ecuador and Peru, and we designate a neotype for the species. Based on the examination of the types of A. emersoni and A. natans from Amazonia, we found that there is wide overlap in the internal and external characters of both taxa. Therefore, A. emersoni is relegated to the synonymy of A. natans. Furthermore, we compared A. microrhynchus with all congeners and discuss its affinities with the A. multicinctus species group based on shared, exclusive hemipenial features.

La especie Rhabdosoma microrhynchum (ahora Atractus microrhynchus) se basó en un solo espécimen colectado por la Expedición Orton en “Guayaquil,” provincia de Guayas, costa Pacífica del Ecuador. El holotipo está actualmente perdido y todos los especímenes previamente referidos a esta especie fueron identificados erróneamente sobre la base de material de la Amazonía Peruana. Durante la revisión de colecciones de museos y la realización de trabajo de campo en las tierras bajas del Pacífico de Ecuador y Perú, encontramos especímenes que se pueden asignar a A. microrhynchus. En este estudio, reportamos sobre la variación morfológica de estos nuevos especímenes de A. microrhynchus y evaluamos el estado taxonómico de las especies Amazónicas previamente confundidas con esta. Restringimos el concepto de A. microrhynchus para las poblaciones de las tierras bajas del Pacífico de Ecuador y Perú y designamos un neotipo para la especie. Basados en la revisión de los tipos de A. emersoni y A. natans de la Amazonía, encontramos que hay una amplia superposición de las características de ambos taxones. Por lo tanto, A. emersoni se coloca bajo la sinonímia de A. natans. Más aún, comparamos A. microrhynchus con todos sus congeners y sus afinidades con el grupo-de-especies A. multicinctus son discutidos sobre la base de las características hemipenianas exclusivas compartidas.

We describe a new species of Ischnocnema from the municipality of Arcos, in the karst region of the upper Rio São Francisco basin, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. The new species is diagnosed by the possession of a W-shaped mark on the back, at the level of the shoulder, with one tubercle at each posterior point, red iris in life, and moderate-sized discs on fingers III and IV. These characteristics resemble those of Ischnocnema manezinho and I. sambaqui (from the I. lactea series) but also that from the species in the I. verrucosa series.

Uma nova espécie de Ischnocnema é descrita, procedente do Município de Arcos, região cárstica do alto curso da bacia do rio São Francisco, Estado de Minas Gerais, Brasil. A nova espécie é diagnosticada por apresentar uma marca em forma de W entre os ombros, com um tubérculo em cada uma das bases; íris vermelha em vida; discos com tamanhos moderados nos dedos III e IV. Tais características assemelham-se às apresentadas por I. manezinho e I. sambaqui (da série de I. lactea), mas também àquelas apresentadas pelas espécies da série de I. verrucosa.

We describe a new species of the Bokermannohyla pseudopseudis group from Chapada Diamantina, Espinhaço Range, central Bahia, northeastern Brazil. It is characterized by the following combination of traits: male snout–vent length (SVL) 60.0 ± 3.3 (51.9–65.3 mm, n = 14); female SVL (60.2–61.6 mm, n = 2); short snout, rounded in dorsal view, rounded to truncate in lateral view; head 1.07 ± 0.04 (1.01–1.14 mm, n = 14) times wider than long; tympanum diameter 0.07 ± 0.01 (0.06–0.08 mm, n = 14) times SVL; macroscopically evident glandular tissue irregularly distributed on the mental area; hypertrophied forearm; well-developed prepollex; nuptial pad between the distal free section of the prepollex and the base of finger I; dorsum light gray to light brown (background) with irregular-shaped brown marbled blotches (without a central light spot) formed by small dark brown dots; in life, small yellow dots on upper and lower lips, eyelids, loreal and gular regions, supratympanic fold, fingers, arms, forearms, flanks, feet, tibiae, thighs, and cloacal region.

We describe a new species of Liolaemus, belonging to the alticolor group, that was previously confused with L. walkeri. The new species inhabits the inter-Andean dry valleys at two localities in the department of La Paz (Ananta and Jupapina), Bolivia. We compared the new species with 11 morphologically similar taxa classified as part of the alticolor group. Our comparisons were based on external morphology and included lepidosis, morphometry, meristic characters, and color patterns. Liolaemus sp. nov. differs from other species of the same group by unique dorsal coloration and lepidosis characteristics.

Describimos una nueva especie de Liolaemus perteneciente al grupo alticolor, previamente confundida con L. walkeri. Esta nueva especie habita en los valles secos inter-Andinos, en las localidades de Ananta y Jupapina, provincia Murillo, departamento de La Paz, Bolivia. Basándonos en caracteres de morfología externa (lepidosis, morfometría, caracteres merísticos y patrones de coloración), comparamos el nuevo taxón con 11 taxa morfológicamente similares que pertenecen al grupo alticolor. Liolaemus sp. nov. difiere de las demás especies del grupo por presentar un patrón de coloración dorsal y características de su lepidosis únicos. Estos resultados nos ayudan a concluir que se trata de una especie nueva del género Liolaemus.

We describe a new species of Bothrops from Vitória Island, off the coast of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil. The new species differs from the mainland coastal populations of B. jararaca mostly in its smaller and stouter body, number and form of scales, and hemipenial morphology. From B. insularis and B. alcatraz, both related species endemic to islands in southeastern Brazil, B. otavioi sp. nov. differs mainly in its body form and number of scales. The new species has the most common mitochondrial haplotype for mainland populations of B. jararaca, which is also found in B. alcatraz. A mitochondrial genealogy (gene tree) shows the new species nested within the northern clade of B. jararaca. This genealogical pattern can be explained by a recent speciation event for B. otavioi sp. nov. The isolation of insular species of Bothrops from continental ancestor populations are probably related to the same vicariant process, the oscillations of sea level during the Pleistocene. The new species feeds on small hylid frogs, and attains sexual maturity at 388 mm snout–vent length (SVL; males) and 692 mm SVL (females). Bothrops otavioi sp. nov. is endemic to Vitória Island, and should be listed as critically endangered because it is known from only a single area (an island), its geographic range covers less than 100 km², and there is a projected continuing decline in the quality of its habitat because of increasing human settlement.