Abiotic factors have been demonstrated to mediate predator–prey interactions in aquatic and terrestrial communities. For amphibians changes in pH, pollutants, temperature, ultraviolet-B, and moisture levels can alter behavioral, developmental, and physiological aspects of predator–prey relationships resulting in reduced survivorship. Some rhacophorid frogs deposit eggs as foam nests on vegetation overhanging water, presumably as an adaptive response to the risk of egg predation by aquatic animals. Terrestrial insects are known to feed on frog embryos in foam nests, and anecdotal observations in tropical East Asia and Southeast Asia suggested that predation of frog embryos by dipteran fly larvae may be higher in unshaded areas. To understand the role that shading may play in this relationship, I compared survival of embryos of the Brown Tree Frog (Polypedates megacephalus) infested by larvae of a calliphorid fly (Phumosia coomani) in shaded and unshaded conditions in a controlled field study. When foam nests were infested by flies, survival to hatching was more than 15 times higher in shaded than in unshaded nests. Less than 1% of frog embryos survived to hatching in unshaded, infested foam nests which contained twice as many fly larvae as shaded nests. These results combine to suggest that both colonization and predation by flies are higher in unshaded foam nests. The mechanism triggering increased colonization of unshaded nests is unclear, but warmer temperatures on the surfaces of unshaded foam nests may decrease hatching time for fly eggs, permitting fly larvae to move inside the foam nest more quickly and begin feeding on amphibian embryos. Although the risk of predation by calliphorid flies is higher for P. megacephalus in unshaded areas, the benefits of developing in warmer conditions, including faster embryonic and larval development and larger size at metamorphosis, may offset this risk.

Disturbance caused by habitat restoration or urbanization can threaten populations of sensitive wildlife species. We examined the effects of habitat disturbance on the ecology of an urban population of Texas Horned Lizards (Phrynosoma cornutum), a species of conservation concern in several states as a result of range-wide declines. We quantified changes in spatial distribution, survival rates, and population size and density over 9 yr (2003–2011) for a P. cornutum population on an urban reserve. The project was divided into three, 3-yr stages based on level of habitat disturbance. Spatial analyses did not support the hypothesis that disturbance associated with restoration activities affected the spatial ecology of P. cornutum on our study site. However, these results were not entirely conclusive due to the logistical constraints of working on a single site with an uncommon species. Survival (n = 147 lizards) was affected by season (inactive-season survival was higher), stage (declining survival in later stages with more disturbance), an interaction of season and stage, and disturbance (covariate of proportion of an individual's home range in disturbed areas for a given year; small negative effect). Major causes of mortality included depredation and anthropogenic activity. We estimated a population size of 33 ± 5 (95% CI of 28–49) individuals (excluding hatchlings) with a corresponding density of 2.68 lizards/ha in 2011, which represented a 38% decline since 2005. This decline was likely a consequence of two factors: the 2008 translocation of 17 adult lizards from an area adjacent to our study site impacted by housing development and a decrease in the annual survival rate of adults over time. Our case study addressed recent calls to examine specific mechanisms by which habitat loss and degradation affect herpetofauna and revealed classic responses of an isolated population to stochastic events and anthropogenic activities.

The costs of nesting to female animals can be substantial, and may dictate patterns of nest-site choice. In particular, females that travel longer distances to nest likely incur greater energetic costs and may be at greater risk of losing territories to conspecific competitors. We examined patterns of nesting migrations for a population of Tuatara on Stephens Island, New Zealand, over 5 yr. We found that only about 7% of female Tuatara observed nesting in a rookery also lived in that rookery. Of 140 females for which we had both residence and nesting locations, 42% traveled to a nesting rookery from their residential area. The average distance traveled by these females was 84 m, and travel was directed toward the rookery closest to a female's residence area. Our results demonstrate that female Tuatara on Stephens Island minimize the distance traveled on nesting migrations. We suggest that the patterns in nesting travel we observed in this population may be due to natal philopatry of nesting females, or to females minimizing the costs of nesting-related travel.

Predation is a dominant and influential factor in most ecological communities. However, little is known about how the federally endangered Barton Springs Salamander, Eurycea sosorum, responds to predators. Using captive-hatched (predator-naïve) salamanders, we examined the antipredator response of E. sosorum to chemical cues from (1) native Western Mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis), (2) introduced Redbreast Sunfish (Lepomis auritus), (3) native Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides), and (4) a blank water control. Salamanders decreased activity (antipredator behavior) in response to all fish treatments but not to the blank water control. There was no difference between the response to the G. affinis and L. auritus, but salamanders responded less to these treatments than to M. salmoides. The antipredator response to G. affinis may be an ontogenetic hold over as G. affinis has been found to consume amphibian larvae and eggs. In an additional study to test whether antipredator behavior was a generalized response to all fish species, we found that E. sosorum did not respond to small, nonnative, nonpredatory Guppies (Poecilia reticulata). This suggests that the observed behavior in our first experiment represents antipredator behavior specific to the species tested. Overall, these results indicate that E. sosorum has innate recognition of predatory fish, and that the stronger antipredator response to M. salmoides over the other fish species may be an outcome of risk assessment. The antipredator response to G. affinis has management implications as G. affinis is sympatric with the largest population of E. sosorum, and may be consuming both eggs and larvae of these salamanders.

Hyloscirtus larinopygion is rediagnosed, and a new species formerly confused with that species is described from the highlands of the Central Cordillera in the Andes Mountains of Colombia. The new species differs from the other species of the H. larinopygion group by its color pattern, iris coloration, and presence of a nuptial pad with dark-brown epidermal projections. We discuss variation and diversity of nuptial pads, the calcar tubercle, and some aspects related to the swollen cloacal region in the H. larinopygion group. Finally, we discuss reproductive biology and problems involving the definition of a putative synapomorphy of Hyloscirtus.

Barygenys exsul was described from only two specimens—one from Rossel Island and one from Sudest Island. I redescribe the species based on an additional 12 recently collected specimens from the type locality, and I provide the first information on that species' advertisement call. I then diagnose and describe two closely related new species found in geographic proximity to B. exsul. Both of these populations have been known for the past few decades but each had been erroneously assigned to B. exsul. The new species differ from B. exsul on the basis of a series of morphological, color-pattern, and call features. Each is narrowly endemic: B. exsul is limited to two islands in the Louisiade Archipelago, one of the new species is limited to nearby Woodlark Island, and the other is known from a limited area on southeastern-most mainland New Guinea. The Woodlark species exhibits a four-fold range of body sizes among adult males, which is unusually large among Papuan frogs.

We describe a new species of frog of the genus Kaloula (family Microhylidae) from Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia based on morphological evidence. The new species has previously been mistaken with K. baleata, which it most closely resembles. Kaloula indochinensis sp. nov. can be distinguished from its congeners by the following combination of characters: maximum snout–vent length 53.7 mm; finger tips expanded into wide discs; the majority of specimens with two subarticular tubercles on the fourth toe; inner and outer metatarsal tubercle slightly raised, inner metatarsal tubercle shorter than first toe; absence of dorsolateral stripe; and large, bright, orange-yellow axillary and inguinal spots.

The New World direct-developing frogs (Terrarana) comprise more than 970 species distributed from the southern United States to northern Argentina. Although the composition of this clade has been remarkably stable for many decades, evidence for its monophyly is derived mostly from DNA sequences with putative phenotypic synapomorphies limited to the occurrence of direct development, an embryonic egg tooth (known in few species), and T-shaped terminal phalanges. Based on a survey of the urogenital and vascular systems and the submandibular musculature of hyloid frogs, we report 16 characters that provide putative synapomorphies at a variety of hierarchic levels. Most significantly, they include seven putative synapomorphies for Terrarana that can be observed through simple dissections, including (1) fusion of the Wolffian ducts, resulting in a single, common cloacal opening; (2) Wolffian duct fusion located anteriorly with a single, common duct along the posterior, > 1/3 of the distance between caudal edge of kidneys and cloacal wall; (3) presence of the posterior dorsolumbar vein; (4) absence of the medial dorsolumbar vein; (5) origin of the posterior caval vein in the anterior 1/3 of the kidneys; (6) posterior origin of dorsolumbar arteries; and (7) presence of the pelvic lymphatic septum.

A new species of the colubrid genus Geophis from northern Puebla, Mexico, is described. The new species possesses most of the diagnostic characters of the G. dubius group but differs from all other species of Geophis by having the loreal shorter than the combined prenasal and postnasal length, one postocular scale, one supraocular scale, the fifth supralabial and parietal in contact, dorsal scales in 17 rows, dorsal scales smooth throughout the length of the body or, if keeled, not anteriorly to the posterior fourth of the body, 129–140 ventrals in females and 125–139 in males, 26–31 subcaudals in females and 34–39 in males, 159–170 ventrals plus subcaudals in females and 161–174 in males, 9 maxillary teeth, anterior tip of the maxilla toothless, an overall dark dorsum, a predominantly cream venter, and a short tail in males. A Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of mtDNA sequences of the cytochrome b and tRNA^Trn genes, including representatives of the new species, G. carinosus, G. dubius, and G. juarezi supported the distinctness of the new species.

Se describe una nueva especie del género de colúbridos Geophis del norte de Puebla, México. La nueva especie posee la mayoría de los caracteres diagnósticos del grupo G. dubius, pero difiere de todas las demás especies de Geophis por presentar la loreal más corta que la longitud combinada de la prenasal y postnasal, una escama postocular, una escama supraocular, la quinta supralabial y la parietal en contacto, las escamas dorsales en 17 hileras, escamas dorsales lisas a lo largo de todo el cuerpo o, de ser aquilladas, no anteriormente al cuarto posterior del cuerpo, 129–140 ventrales en hembras y 125–139 en machos, 26–31 subcaudales en hembras y 34–39 en machos, 159–170 ventrales más subcaudales en hembras y 161–174 en machos, 9 dientes maxilares, extremo anterior de la maxila sin dientes, un dorso mayormente oscuro, un vientre predominantemente crema y una cola corta en los machos. Un análisis filogenético Bayesiano de secuencias mitocondriales de los genes que codifican para Citocromo b y tRNA^Trn que incluyó a la nueva especie, G. carinosus, G. dubius y G. juarezi apoyó la distinción de la nueva especie.