Aphidius colemani Viereck (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) is a pan-tropical, broadly oligophagous, solitary endoparasitoid of many aphids of economic importance. Here, we review current knowledge about this important biological control agent, with a special focus on the physical and chemical cues triggering mating and host-seeking behavior. First, we focus on femaleborne olfactory cues evoking courtship in A. colemani males, as well as on the relationship between male mating performance and quality of the host species. Second, we examine how A. colemani females forage for hosts and assess their suitability, using both aphid-borne kairomones and host-related physical cues. Third, we review A. colemani-based biological control approaches, outlining how knowledge of its reproductive behavioral ecology may enhance biological control of aphid pests. Concepts for future biocontrol programs are outlined, including 1) use of sex attractant dispensers for monitoring, 2) mass-rearing optimization based on knowledge of mate-finding strategies and sexually selected traits, 3) deployment of aphid-borne foraging kairomones as field lures to attract parasitoids into infested agro-ecosystems, 4) use of sensitization or associative learning practices to optimize efficacy of mass-reared wasps.

The black citrus aphid, also known as the tea aphid, (Toxoptera aurantii Boyer) attacks economically important crops, including tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze). In the current study, silica sol-gel formulations were screened to find one that could carry and release C. sinensis plant volatiles to lure black citrus aphids in a greenhouse. The common plant volatile trans-2-hexen-1-al was used as a model molecule to screen for suitable sol-gel formulations. A zNose (Electronic Sensor Technology, Newbury Park, CA) transportable gas chromatograph was used to continuously monitor the volatile emissions. A sol-gel formulation containing tetramethyl orthosilicate and methyltrime-thoxysilane in an 8:2 (vol:vol) ratio was selected to develop a slow-release dispenser. The half-life of trans-2-hexen-1-al in the sol-gel dispenser increased slightly with the volume of this compound in the dispenser. Ten different volatiles were tested in the sol-gel dispenser. Alcohols of 6–10 carbons had the longest half-lives (3.01–3.77 d), while esters of 6–12 carbons had the shortest (1.53–2.28 d). Release of these volatiles from the dispensers could not be detected by the zNose after 16 d (cis-3-hexenyl acetate) to 26 d (3,7-dimethylocta-1,6-dien-3-ol). In greenhouse experiments, trans-2-hexen-1-al and cis-3-hexen-1-ol released from the sol-gel dispensers attracted aphids for ≈17 d, and release of these volatiles could not be detected by the zNose after ≈24 d. The sol-gel dispensers performed adequately for the slow release of plant volatiles to trap aphids in the greenhouse.

Varroa destructor Anderson and Trueman 2000 (Acari: Varroidae) is an ectoparasitic mite of the honey bee, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Honey bee colonies require extensive management to prevent mortality caused by varroa mites and the viruses they vector. New miticides (Thymovar and HopGuard) to manage varroa mites were evaluated during the spring and fall treatment windows of the Canadian prairies to determine their effectiveness as part of an integrated management strategy. Thymovar and HopGuard were evaluated alongside the currently used industry standards: Apivar and formic acid. Results demonstrated that Apivar and formic acid remain effective V. destructor management options under spring and fall conditions. Applications of Thymovar during spring were associated with a reduction in brood area, and therefore should be limited to the fall season. The miticide HopGuard was not effective in managing V. destructor, and alteration of the current delivery system is necessary. This study demonstrates the potential for new effective treatment options to supplement currently used V. destructor integrated pest management systems.

Nosema ceranae Fries et al., 1996, a microsporidian parasite recently transferred from Asian honey bees Apis cerana F., 1793, to European honey bees Apis mellifera L., 1758, has been suspected as one of the major culprits of the worldwide honey bee colony losses. Spore load is a commonly used criterion to describe the intensity of Nosema infection. In this study, by providing Nosema-infected bees with sterilized pollen, we confirmed that pollen feeding increased the spore loads of honey bees by several times either in the presence or absence of a queen. By changing the amount of pollen consumed by bees in cages, we showed that spore loads increased with an increase in pollen consumption. Nosema infections decrease honey bee longevity and transcription of vitellogenin, either with or without pollen feeding. However, the reduction of pollen consumption had a greater impact on honey bee longevity and vitellogenin level than the increase of spore counts caused by pollen feeding. These results indicate that spore loads may not be used alone as a direct indicator of the severity of N. ceranae infection in honey bees.

Intensively managed, commercial orchards offer resources for managed solitary bees within agricultural landscapes and provide a means to study bee dispersal patterns, spatial movement, nest establishment, and reproduction. In 2012, we studied the impact of 1) the color of nest boxes covaried with four nest box density treatments and 2) the number of bee release sites covaried with two nest box density treatments on the reproductive success of Osmia lignaria Say in a California almond orchard pollinated by a mixture of O. lignaria and Apis mellifera L. Nest box color influenced the number of nests, total cells, and cells with male and female brood. More nests and cells were produced in light blue nest boxes than in orange or yellow nest boxes. The covariate nest box density also had a significant effect on brood production. The number of release sites did not affect O. lignaria nesting and reproduction, but the number of cavities in nest boxes influenced reproduction. Overall, the color of nest boxes and their distribution, but not the number of release sites, can greatly affect O. lignaria nest establishment and reproductive success in a commercial almond orchard. The ability to locate nesting sites in a homogenous, large orchard landscape may also be facilitated by the higher frequency of nest boxes with low numbers of cavities, and by the ability to detect certain nest box colors that best contrast with the blooming trees.

The Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, commonly known as pinewood nematode in Japan, is a quarantine pest and is most often associated with beetles of the genus Monochamus, the pine sawyers, particularly Monochamus alternatus. Long-distance dispersal of the nematode and its vectors led to widespread losses in pine forests. Two fumigation trials were conducted for treatment of logs naturally infested with both M. alternatus and B. xylophilus. The logs were treated with ethanedinitrile or metam sodium at low temperature (-7-25.7°C and -3.7-23.1°C) for 3-d exposure in winter and early spring. Fumigation with ethanedinitrile at concentrations of 48, 68, 97 and 158 g/m³ resulted in 34.6–58.3, 91.5–97.2, 100, and 100% mortality for M. alternatus and 88.4, 77.9, 96.4, and 98.0% mortality for B. xylophilus, respectively. With Metam sodium fumigation at a dose rate of 1162 g/m³, 100% M. alternatus and 97.4% B. xylophilus were killed. These results suggest that 97 g/m³ of ethanedinitrile is adequate for complete control of M. alternatus in pine wood and >158 g/m³ is required for eradication of B. xylophilus at low temperature fumigation. These results suggest that 97 g/m³ of ethanedinitrile offers complete control of M. alternatus in pine wood and control of >98% B. xylophilus in winter or spring fumigation at a dosage rate of 158 g/m³. Therefore, ethanedinitrile has great potential for treatment of fresh pine wooden logs to manage the nematodes and the vector insects at low temperature.

The plataspid Megacopta cribraria (F.), an economic pest of soybeans, Glycine max (L.) Merrill, in Asia recently invaded North America and has become not only an important pest of soybean but also a nuisance pest. Although much is reported about M. cribraria in its native and invasive range, little information has been documented on the effect of temperatures on its development, longevity, and reproduction. We evaluated the influence of five constant temperatures (17–33°C) on the development, survival, fecundity, and population growth of M. cribraria in the laboratory. The developmental time for egg and nymph stages was shortened significantly with increasing temperature. The developmental time from egg to adult emergence was 114.81, 76.26, 44.54, and 38.54 d at 17, 21, 25, and 29°C, respectively. The nymphs of M. cribraria could not complete full development at a constant 33°C. The developmental threshold temperature estimated for egg to adult was 14.25°C, with a thermal constant of 849.56 degree—days. Females had the longest preoviposition period at 21°C (54.33 d), and the preoviposition period was shortened significantly as the temperature increased. Females had the longest oviposition period (35.33 d) and the highest fecundity (159.67 eggs per female) at 25°C and did not lay any eggs at 17°C. Female longevity was found to be shortest (44.0 d) at 29°C, and similar (75.67–81.50 d) at 17–25°C. The population trend index of M. cribraria was the highest (46.47) at 25°C, followed by 29°C (10.84) and 21°C (6.70). The results will be useful for predicting the phenology and population dynamics of M. cribraria and will provide some biological information on the invasive species in its nonnative range.

Optimization of male moth trapping rates in sex pheromone-baited traps plays a key role in managing Plutella xylostella (L.). We investigated various ways to increase the attractiveness of pheromone-baited traps to P. xylostella in canola agroecosystems in AB, Canada. Factors tested included pheromone blend and dose, addition of a green leaf volatile to the pheromone at different times during the season, lure type, trap color, and height. The industry standard dose of 100 µg of pheromone (four-component blend) per lure (ConTech Enterprises Inc., Delta, British Columbia [BC], Canada) captured the most moths in the two lure types tested. Traps baited with pheromone released from gray rubber septa captured more males than those baited with red rubber septa. Traps baited with lures in which Z11–16: Ac is the main component attracted significantly more moths than those in which Z11–16: Ald is the main component. The addition of the green leaf volatile, (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate, to pheromone at a range of doses, did not increase moth capture at any point during the canola growing season. Unpainted white traps captured significantly more male moths than pheromone-baited traps that were painted yellow. Trap height had no significant effect on moth capture. Recommendations for monitoring P. xylostella in canola agroecosystems of western Canada include using a pheromone blend with Z11–16: Ac as the main component released from gray rubber septa at a dose of 100 µg.

Conflicting results have been reported on the ability of glandular-haired alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) cultivars to reduce potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae Harris, population abundance in field environments. We measured potato leafhopper adult and nymph abundance and yield responses in a cultivar selected for high potato leafhopper resistance (‘54H91’) and in a non-glandular-haired susceptible cultivar (‘54V54’) with and without insecticide treatment across 3 yr. Treatments included no insecticide and insecticide applied either early or late in each summer growth cycle. Date × cultivar × treatment interactions were found for potato leafhopper population abundance. In the absence of insecticides, total potato leafhopper abundance (adults nymphs per sweep) was lower in 54H91 than in 54V54 on 85% of sampling dates; cultivar differences were especially evident as potato leafhopper abundance peaked. Insecticide treatment reduced potato leafhopper populations in both cultivars, but populations recovered and often exceeded the normal action threshold in both cultivars within 2–3 wk of insecticide application. Yield gain from early insecticide treatment of 54V54 was >400 kg/ha in 11 of 14 summer harvests, whereas in 54H91 the yield gain was <250 kg/ha in 10 of 14 summer harvests. We conclude that glandular-haired alfalfa cultivars with high levels of potato leafhopper resistance significantly suppress potato leafhopper adult and nymph abundance, reduce yield losses in the absence of insecticides, and have potential within an integrated pest management strategy to reduce insecticide use in alfalfa production systems.

The aloe mite, Aceria aloinis Keifer, causes physiological and morphological alterations in species of Aloe L. We conducted three trials to evaluate the potential of various miticides for curative and preventive control of damage caused by A. aloinis. In the first trial, the efficacy of nine miticides against aloe mite damage was assessed without the removal of infected tissue in Aloe reitziiae Reynolds. Although significant reductions in the number of mites and eggs were found due to the treatments, miticide application did not reduce the amount of plant area damaged or damage severity. Once the plants are infected, the irreversible damage by aloe mite progresses. The second trial analyzed the effects of seven miticides on aloe mite damage on Aloe ’Goliath’ plants in which the damaged tissue was removed. Reduced damage severity and mite number was observed in all treated plants. To determine if aloe mite damage could be prevented, the effects of six miticides with and without surfactant were tested on uninfected plants of Aloe spinosissima A. Berger in a third trial. Except for chlorfenapyr and fenazaquin, all treatments reduced plant damaged area, damage severity, and the number of mites 60 wk following three miticide applications. The severity index in the second and third trials suggested that all treated plants would be marketable. Our study demonstrated that there were miticides that were effective by contact (carbaryl), translaminar (spiromesifen), and systemic (spirotetramat) action, which can be used to cure and to prevent aloe mite plant damage alone or in combination with cultural practices.

Competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to quantify the amounts of the neonicotinoids clothianidin and imidacloprid in Poa annua L. clippings from treated golf course fairways. Average clothianidin residues 7 d after application ranged from 674 to 1,550 ng/g tissue in 2012 and 455–2,220 ng/g tissue in 2013. Average clothianidin residues the day of application ranged from 17,100–38,800 ng/g tissue in 2014. Average imidacloprid residues 7 d after treatment ranged from 1,950–3,030 ng/g tissue in 2012 and 7,780–9,230 ng/g tissue in 2013. Average imidacloprid residues the day of application ranged from 31,500–40,400 ng/g tissue in 2014. Neonicotinoid or bifenthrin—neonicotinoid combination products applied in field plots in 2012 did not significantly reduce the numbers of larvae relative to the untreated control. However, in 2013, statistically significant reductions in the numbers of larvae recovered from treated field plots were associated with the presence of bifenthrin alone or when used in combination with neonicotinoid active ingredients. Listronotus maculicollis (Kirby) adults caged on neonicotinoid-, bifenthrin-, and bifenthrin—neonicotinoid-treated P. annua turf plugs fed on P. annua leaves, but mortality was only highly significantly different between treated and untreated foliage when weevils were placed on treated foliage the day after treatment and allowed to feed for 7 d. The modest degree of population suppression with bifenthrin in these experiments may not be adequate to justify the continued use of these products due to the increased risk of insecticide resistance and disruption of biological control.

The sterile insect technique is used to manage or control fruit flies throughout the world. The technique relies on large scale production before delivery to release managers. As part of the mass production phase, there are many quality control tests to demonstrate and maintain high quality pupae and flies. One highly desirable characteristic is adults with a long life so that these adults can reach sexual maturity and sterile males mate with wild fertile flies in the field and thus produce no viable offspring. Originally longevity was assessed allowing adults to have unlimited access to food and water. As quality and longevity increased, this methodology added significantly to workload and space demands and many facilities moved to testing longevity under stress where no food or water was provided. Here we examined >27,000 Queensland fruit fly Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) from 160 weekly production batches from July 2004 to October 2009 where flies were not provided food or water. The mean longevity was 54.4 ± SE hours. Longevity was significantly shorter from August to March, and the longevity was significantly longer in June. Longevity was not related to pupal weight, contrary to expectations. Weights were significantly lower in June and highest in summer.

Drosophila suzukii Matsumura (Diptera: Drosophilidae) is a recent invasive pest of fruit crops in North America and Europe. Carpophagous larvae render fruit unmarketable andmaypromote secondary rot-causing organisms. To monitor spread and develop programs to time application of controls, further work is needed to optimize trap design and trapping protocols for adult D. suzukii. We compared commercial traps and developed a new, easy-to-use plastic jar trap that performed well compared with other designs. For some trap types, increasing the entry area led to increased D. suzukii captures and improved selectivity for D. suzukii when populations were low. However, progressive entry area enlargement had diminishing returns, particularly for commercial traps. Unlike previous studies, we found putting holes in trap lids under a close-fitting cover improved captures compared with holes on sides of traps. Also, red and black traps outperformed yellow and clear traps when traps of all colors were positioned 10–15 cm apart above crop foliage. In smaller traps, attractant surface area and entry area, but not other trap features (e.g., headspace volume), appeared to affect D. suzukii captures. In the new, plastic jar trap, tripling attractant volume (360 vs 120 ml) and weekly attractant replacement resulted in the highest D. suzukii captures, but in the larger commercial trap these measures only increased by-catch of large-bodied Diptera. Overall, the plastic jar trap with large entry area is affordable, durable, and can hold high attractant volumes to maximize D. suzukii capture and selectivity.

The cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is one of the most damaging insect pests of cabbage (Brassica oleracea variety capitata) and broccoli (B. oleracea variety italica) in North America. Leaf-feeding larvae attack crucifer and vegetable crops in greenhouses and fields. Here, we have studied a synthetic feeding deterrent, 1-allyloxy-4-propoxybenzene, and a botanical deterrent, neem (an extract from seeds of Azadirachta indica A. de Jussieu (Meliaceae)), in leaf disc choice bioassays with T. ni. We tested the two deterrents and the combination, and we found that the blend exhibits synergy between the two deterrents. We also tested the deterrents in assays with whole cabbage plants in ventilated enclosures and found that 1-allyloxy-4- propoxybenzene evaporated and, therefore, in that context addition of 1-allyloxy-4-propoxybenzene to neem did not enhance deterrence against T. ni.

Sparganothis sulfureana Clemens is a severe pest of cranberries in the Midwest and northeast United States. Timing for insecticide applications has relied primarily on calendar dates and pheromone trap-catch; however, abiotic conditions can vary greatly, rendering such methods unreliable as indicators of optimal treatment timing. Phenology models based on degree-day (DD) accrual represent a proven, superior approach to assessing the development of insect populations, particularly for larvae. Previous studies of S. sulfureana development showed that the lower and upper temperature thresholds for larval development were 10.0 and 29.9°C (49.9 and 85.8°F), respectively.Weused these thresholds to generate DD accumulations specific to S. sulfureana, and then linked these DD accumulations to discrete biological events observed during S. sulfureana development in Wisconsin and New Jersey cranberries. Here, we provide the DDs associated with flight initiation, peak flight, flight termination, adult life span, preovipositional period, ovipositional period, and egg hatch. These DD accumulations represent key developmental benchmarks, allowing for the creation of a phenology model that facilitates wiser management of S. sulfureana in the cranberry system.

The Diaprepes root weevil, Diaprepes abbreviatus L. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), was discovered as the cause of early decline and death of citrus trees and ornamental plants along coastal Orange and Los Angeles Counties in 2005 and San Diego County in 2006. We established trials to evaluate the effectiveness of two tactics to manage life stages of Diaprepes root weevil that are found in the soil. The first tactic was soil applications of the pesticides bifenthrin or imidacloprid, with and without entomopathogenic nematodes, to kill larvae. The second tactic was attempting to block adult emergence from the soil using a thick wood-chip mulch layer, a small-meshed landscape fabric, and a dry soil barrier (created by subirrigation). We found that soil treatments with the two insecticides (bifenthrin and imidacloprid) at maximum label rates with and without Steinernema riobrave Cabanillas et al. at 5 million nematodes per tree significantly reduced numbers of soil-borne Diaprepes root weevil larvae in one trial compared with the control. Another entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis indica Poinar et al. applied in wax moth Galleria mellonella L. cadavers at 86 wax moth cadavers per tree was not effective. Adult emergence was reduced by almost 100% when the landscape fabric was kept intact (2009), but emergence occurred in 2010 when the fabric was torn by grove operations (60% reduction). Adult emergence was reduced to ≈70% compared with the control in the subirrigation treatment in 2009 when the summer was hot and dry, but emergence occurred in 2010 during periodic rains toward the end of summer. The mulch treatment kept the soil moist in between irrigations resulting in greater adult emergence rates compared with controls during 2009 and 2010. Health ratings of the trees were taken following several years of physical barrier treatments, and trees treated with the landscape fabric were significantly healthier (mean rating 0.9, scale 0 = healthy to 5 = dead) than those in the other treatments (mean rating of 3.6, 4.0, and 2.5 for control, mulch and subirrigation, respectively). Of the physical barrier methods studied, landscape fabric is most effective in reducing Diaprepes root weevil emergence, increases plant health, and is long lasting, but it is the most costly to install and can be damaged during harvest.

The purpose of this study was to involve pest management professionals in the design of application techniques and strategies that would be efficacious and also reduce insecticide runoff. Our study involved measuring both the efficacy of treatments for the Argentine ant, Linepithema humile (Mayr), and the concurrent runoff of fipronil and pyrethroids. Two collaborating companies used low-impact protocols for controlling ants while minimizing runoff. Protocol 1 involved bimonthly treatments, while Protocol 2 was monthly. Both protocols involved an initial treatment with a fipronil spray around the foundation. At the garage door—driveway interface, the fipronil application was done as a pin stream for Protocol 1, and as a crack and crevice application in the expansion joint near the garage for Protocol 2. Protocol 1 replaced most pyrethroid sprays with bifenthrin granules placed around bushes and away from the driveway. For the next treatment on day 63, Protocol 1 also included cyfluthrin spray treatments around the house foundation and crack and crevice applications around the edge of the driveway. For the first treatment in Protocol 2, the fipronil spray was supplemented with spot treatments of cyfluthrin. For subsequent Protocol 2 treatments, botanical insecticides were applied. For weeks 1 and 2 posttreatment combined, Protocol 1 had significantly higher reductions in ant numbers compared with Protocol 2. Thereafter there were no significant differences between the protocols. Runoff of bifenthrin from the granules used with Protocol 1 was much lower than in previous trials involving bifenthrin sprays. Day 1 fipronil runoff for Protocol 2 was significantly lower than that for Protocol 1. This difference may be because of the crack and crevice application applied in Protocol 2. Cyfluthrin runoff was minimal for Protocol 2, which involved spot treatments to supplement the fipronil on day 1, or the botanical insecticides for subsequent treatments. Protocol 1 had a large peak of cyfluthrin runoff at day 63 corresponding to their house and driveway treatments.

The efficacy of chitin synthesis inhibitors (CSIs) against fungus-growing termites is known to vary. In this study, 0.1% chlorfluazuron (CFZ) cellulose bait was tested against medium and large field colonies of Macrotermes gilvus (Hagen). The termite mounds were dissected to determine the health of the colony. Individual termites (i.e., workers and larvae) and fungus combs were subjected to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC—MS) analysis to detect the presence of CFZ. In this study, 540.0 ± 25.8 g (or equivalent to 540.0 ± 25.8 mg active ingredient) and 680.0 ± 49.0 g (680.0 ± 49.0 mg active ingredient) of bait matrix were removed by the medium- and large-sized colonies, respectively, after baiting. All treated medium-sized colonies were moribund. The dead termites were scattered in the mound, larvae were absent, population size had decreased by 90%, and the queens appeared unhealthy. In contrast, no or limited effects were found in large-sized colonies. Only trace amounts of CFZ were detected in workers, larvae, and fungus combs, and the population of large-sized colonies had declined by only up to 40%. This might be owing to the presence of large amount of basidiomycete fungus and a drastic decrease of CFZ content per unit fungus comb (a main food source of larvae) in the large-sized colonies, and hence reduced the toxic effect and longer time is required to accumulate the lethal dose in larvae. Nevertheless, we do not deny the possibility of CSI bait eliminating or suppressing the higher termite if the test colonies could pick up adequate lethal dose by installing more bait stations and prolonging the baiting period.

The bed bug, (Cimex lectularius L.), is a difficult pest to control. Prevalence of insecticide resistance among bed bug populations and concerns over human-insecticide exposure has stimulated the development of alternative bed bug control materials. Many essential oil-based pesticides and detergent insecticides targeting bed bugs have been developed in recent years. We evaluated the efficacy of nine essential oil-based products and two detergents using direct spray and residual contact bioassays in the laboratory.Twoconventional insecticides, Temprid SC (imidacloprid and β-cyfluthrin) and Demand CS (λ-cyhalothrin), were used for comparison. Among the 11 nonsynthetic insecticides tested, only EcoRaider (1% geraniol, 1% cedar extract, and 2% sodium lauryl sulfate) and Bed Bug Patrol (0.003% clove oil, 1% peppermint oil, and 1.3% sodium lauryl sulfate) caused >90% mortality of nymphs in direct spray and forced exposure residual assays. However, the efficacy of EcoRaider and Bed Bug Patrol was significantly lower than that of Temprid SC and Demand CS in choice exposure residual bioassay. Direct spray of EcoRaider caused 87% egg mortality, whereas the other nonsynthetic insecticides had little effect on bed bug eggs. EcoRaider and Bed Bug Patrol did not exhibit detectable repellency against bed bugs in the presence of a carbon dioxide source. These findings suggest that EcoRaider and Bed Bug Patrol are potentially useful pesticides for controlling bed bug infestations, but further testing in naturally infested environments is needed.

Detection of low-level bed bug, Cimex lectularius L. (Hemiptera: Cimicidae), infestations is essential for early intervention, confirming eradication of infestations, and reducing the spread of bed bugs. Despite the importance of detection, few effective tools and methods exist for detecting low numbers of bed bugs. Scent dogs were developed as a tool for detecting bed bugs in recent years. However, there are no data demonstrating the reliability of trained canines under natural field conditions. We evaluated the accuracy of 11 canine detection teams in naturally infested apartments. All handlers believed their dogs could detect infestations at a very high rate (≥95%). In three separate experiments, the mean (min, max) detection rate was 44 (10–100)% and mean false-positive rate was 15 (0–57)%. The false-positive rate was positively correlated with the detection rate. The probability of a bed bug infestation being detected by trained canines was not associated with the level of bed bug infestations. Four canine detection teams evaluated on multiple days were inconsistent in their ability to detect bed bugs and exhibited significant variance in accuracy of detection between inspections on different days. There was no significant relationship between the team's experience or certification status of teams and the detection rates. These data suggest that more research is needed to understand factors affecting the accuracy of canine teams for bed bug detection in naturally infested apartments.

The genetically modified maize TC1507 event with the cry1F gene (Cry1F maize) has been used to control Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Brazil since the 2009–2010 cropping season. As part of the insect resistance management program, we conducted studies to determine the baseline susceptibility to Cry1F before the widespread planting of Cry1F maize. Subsequently, we evaluated the geographical and temporal variability of susceptibility to this toxin in populations of S. frugiperda collected from major maize-growing regions in Brazil.Thebaseline susceptibility to Cry1F was determined using a diet-overlay bioassay for a susceptible reference population and four field populations of S. frugiperda.We then monitored the susceptibility to Cry1F in 43 populations of S. frugiperda sampled in nine States of Brazil between 2011 and 2013. In the baseline study, the MIC₅₀ (the concentration that inhibits molting to second instars in 50% of individuals) ranged from 3.59 to 72.47 ng Cry1F toxin per centimeter square. Based on the upper limit of the MIC₉₉ value of the joint analysis from the baseline susceptibility data, the concentrations of 200 and 2,000 ng of Cry1F toxin per centimeter square were defined as diagnostic concentrations for potentially resistant individuals, and these were used to monitor the susceptibility of S. frugiperda to Cry1F. Survival at 2,000 ng Cry1F toxin per centimeter square increased significantly throughout the cropping seasons in S. frugiperda populations from São Paulo, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, Bahia, Mato Grosso, Goiá s, Mato Grosso do Sul, and Paraná. The highest survival (>50%) was reached in populations collected from Bahia, Mato Grosso, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, and Paraná during the 2012–2013 cropping season. Therefore, a significant decrease in susceptibility to Cry1F was detected in S. frugiperda throughout cropping seasons, especially in regions with intensive maize production in Brazil, according to field-evolved resistance that has been demonstrated in Brazilian populations.

Bed bugs Cimex lectularius L. were exposed to conidia (spores) of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae by feeding, aerosol spray, or contact with a treated surface. Feeding experiments demonstrated that bed bugs were innately susceptible to this fungus. However, only at 98% humidity were mortality rates high, regardless of whether bed bugs were sprayed with a fungal solution or contacted a treated surface. Mortality in treated bed bugs at ambient humidity did not increase when these bed bugs were kept in aggregation with other bed bugs that had recently blood fed to repletion. Based on these laboratory studies, we conclude that M. anisopliae is a poor pathogen for use in control of bed bugs, particularly at humidities that would likely be encountered under field conditions.

Transient heat stress compromises resistance of host plants to Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say), and other biotic stresses. However, the mechanism for the loss of plant resistance under heat stress remains to be determined. In this study, we determined polar lipid profiles in control and Hessian fly-infested resistant and susceptible wheat seedlings with and without heat stress using an automated electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Heat stress, alone or in combination with Hessian fly infestation, caused significant reduction in the abundance of total detected polar lipids and double bond index. Changes in lipid profiles in ‘Molly’ were similar to those in ‘Newton’ under heat stress. However, changes in lipid profiles in Molly were significantly different from those in Newton following Hessian fly infestation. The combination of heat stress and Hessian fly infestation resulted in unique lipid profiles in comparison with those in plants either treated with heat stress or infested with Hessian fly alone. In addition, a greater impact on lipid metabolism was observed in heat-stressed plants infested with Hessian fly than that in plants treated with either heat stress or Hessian fly alone. Our results suggest that changes in lipid metabolism caused by heat stress may be part of the metabolic pathways through which heat stress suppresses resistance of wheat plants to Hessian fly infestation.

Development of sampling techniques to effectively estimate invertebrate densities in the field is essential for effective implementation of pest control programs, particularly when making informed spray decisions around economic thresholds. In this article, we investigated the influence of several factors to devise a sampling strategy to estimate Halotydeus destructor Tucker densities in a canola paddock. Direct visual counts were found to be the most suitable approach for estimating mite numbers, with higher densities detected than the vacuum sampling method. Visual assessments were impacted by the operator, sampling date, and time of day. However, with the exception of operator (more experienced operator detected higher numbers of mites), no obvious trends were detected. No patterns were found between H. destructor numbers and ambient temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, cloud cover, or soil surface conditions, indicating that these factors may not be of high importance when sampling mites during autumn and winter months. We show further support for an aggregated distribution of H. destructor within paddocks, indicating that a stratified random sampling program is likely to be most appropriate. Together, these findings provide important guidelines for Australian growers around the ability to effectively and accurately estimate H. destructor densities.

Since its discovery in the southeastern United States, the invasive plataspid Megacopta cribraria (F.) (Hemiptera: Plataspidae) has infested soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) fields in often very high numbers. To optimize sampling plans, sweep-net and beat-cloth sampling was conducted in soybean fields in South Carolina during 2012 and 2013. Across all fields, densities averaged 7.2 ± 0.5 (SEM) adults and 4.5 ± 0.4 nymphs per 20 sweeps and 5.5 ± 0.3 adults and 4.5 ± 0.3 nymphs per 1.83mof row. Coefficients of Taylor's power law were used to generate sampling plans for population estimates and sequential sampling plans for pest management decision making. At an economic threshold of one nymph per sweep, optimum sample sizes were 184, 48, and 22 within 10, 20, and 30% of the mean with the sweep-net method. At the corresponding threshold for the beat cloth (24.7 nymphs per 1.83 m of row), optimum sample sizes were 239, 62, and 29 within 10, 20 and 30% of the mean, respectively. At all adult and nymph densities, fewer sweep-net samples were required for population estimations compared with the number of beat-cloth samples. Sequential sampling reduced the sample size required to reach a management decision for the sweep net and beat cloth compared with a fixed sampling plan. The sweep-net method was more cost reliable for population estimation at low densities of both life stages, with the beat cloth becoming more cost reliable as populations increased. The beat-cloth method was more cost reliable than sweep-net sampling across all densities and life stages for pest management practices. These results may be used by researchers, county Extension agents, consultants, and farm managers to both facilitate sampling and improve reliability of M. cribraria estimates for research purposes and for pest management.

Laboratory bioassays were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of thiamethoxam, against five major stored-grain beetle species, the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), the rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (L.), the confused flour beetle, Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val, the larger grain borer, Prostephanus truncatus (Horn), and the sawtoothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.). Adults of the above species were exposed on wheat (or maize in the case of P. truncatus) treated with thiamethoxam at 0.1, 1, and 10 ppm for 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 16, 40, 72, and 96 h. After each of these intervals, mortality was recorded (immediate mortality) and the surviving individuals were transferred in untreated wheat (or maize), where mortality was recorded again 7 d later (delayed mortality). During both immediate and delayed mortality counts, the number of adults that were knocked down was also recorded. Immediate mortality was low in all exposures, with the exception of the highest dose rate and after 72–96 h. At these conditions, during this interval, most of the surviving individuals were knocked down. Delayed mortality was further increased with the increase of dose and the initial exposure, but knockdown was extremely low, with the exception of P. truncatus. The results of the present work show that O. surinamensis was the least susceptible species, while P. truncatus was the most susceptible. These findings show that, despite the increased mortality, recovery after short exposures is likely for all species tested here. In this regard, partially treated areas on which the insects are exposed only for short intervals may reduce thiamethoxam efficacy.

Efficacy of the suspension concentrate formulation of deltamethrin (Centynal) was evaluated at labeled rates on concrete surfaces and hard red winter wheat against 12 field strains of the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst); six strains of the sawtoothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.); and four strains of the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F). The time for ≈100% mortality of adults of laboratory strains was first established by exposing them to deltamethrin-treated concrete at the highest labeled rate of 0.02 g(AI)/m² for 1–24 h. On concrete, deltamethrin did not provide complete mortality of adults of T. castaneum and O. surinamensis field strains, but was effective against R. dominica strains. Mortalities of two strains each of T. castaneum and O. surinamensis were significantly lower than that of the corresponding laboratory strains. On wheat treated with 0.5 mg(AI)/kg of deltamethrin, the 7- and 14-d mortalities of four to six T. castaneum field strains, three O. surinamensis strains, and one R. dominica strain were significantly lower than that of the corresponding laboratory strains. Even at twice the labeled rate on wheat, the 7-d mortalities of three strains each of T. castaneum and O. surinamensis were significantly lower than the corresponding laboratory strains. Except for one T. castaneum and two O. surinamensis strains, the reduction in adult progeny production on deltamethrin-treated wheat relative to that on untreated wheat was 92–100%. Reduced susceptibility in field strains may be due to low levels of tolerance or resistance to deltamethrin.

A series of laboratory studies was conducted to assess the effect of droplet size on efficacy of pyrethrin aerosol against adults of Tribolium confusum Jacqueline DuVal, the confused flour beetle. A vertical flow aerosol exposure chamber that generated a standardized particle size diameter was used for these trials. In the first experiments, adults were exposed in the chamber for 2.5–45 min to aerosol dispensed at a volumetric median particle size diameter (VMD) of 16 µm, and then held in the arenas in which they were exposed or transferred to new arenas with or without a flour food source. All adults were initially knocked down when removed from the chamber. Recovery from knockdown decreased as exposure interval increased, but the presence of a food source enhanced recovery at the lower exposure intervals. In the second experiment, the aerosol was applied at a VMD of 2 µm and adults were exposed for between 5 and 75 min. Knockdown of adults was ≤10% when adults were removed from the chamber regardless of exposure time and afterward there was essentially complete recovery of adults. In the third and final experiment, the same 2-µm VMD particle size and exposure times were used, but the concentration of aerosol was increased by ≈4× compared with the previous experiment. In this test, initial knockdown was greater at the higher exposure intervals, but by 3 and 4 d posttreatment, recovery was again essentially 100%. This is the first published test assessing the efficacy of specific aerosol particle sizes on a stored product insect. Results indicate that particle size was a more important factor in conferring toxicity than the actual concentration or number of aerosol particles.