Oil sands mining is steadily expanding in Alberta, Canada. Major companies are planning reclamation strategies for mine tailings, in which wetlands will be used for the bioremediation of water and sediments contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and naphthenic acids during the extraction process. A series of experimental wetlands were built on companies' leases to assess the feasibility of this approach, and tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) were designated as upper trophic biological sentinels. From May to July 2004, prevalence and intensity of infestation with bird blow flies Protocalliphora spp. (Diptera: Calliphoridae) were measured in nests on oil sands reclaimed wetlands and compared with those on a reference site. Nestling growth and survival also were monitored. Prevalence of infestation was surprisingly high for a small cavity nester; 100% of the 38 nests examined were infested. Nests on wetlands containing oil sands waste materials harbored on average from 60% to 72% more blow fly larvae than those on the reference site. Nestlings on reclaimed sites suffered mean parasitic burdens about twice that of those on the reference site; and for comparable parasitic load, they exhibited greater pathologic effects (e.g., decreased body mass) than control nestlings. The heavy blow fly infestation on oil sands-impacted wetlands suggests that oil sands mining disturbs several components of the local ecosystem, including habitat characteristics, blow fly predators, and host resistance to parasites.

Large breeding populations of California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) are located on San Miguel and San Nicolas Islands in the Southern California Bight. In 2001, there was a substantial increase in pup mortality in late summer and fall. From June 2002 to January 2003, 208 freshly dead pups were examined on San Miguel Island, the most western of the Channel Islands off the coast of southern California. Tissues from 186 of these pups were examined histologically. The primary lesions in 133 (72%) of the pups were an enteritis associated with hookworms and infections in major organs. Emaciation/starvation in 43 pups (26%) was the second most important cause of death.

We describe health significance of protostrongylid parasites (Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei and Protostrongylus stilesi) and other respiratory pathogens in more than 50 naturally infected Dall's sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) from the Mackenzie Mountains, Northwest Territories (1998–2002) as well as in three Stone's sheep (O. d. stonei) experimentally infected with P. odocoilei (2000–2002). Histological lesions in the brain and distribution of P. odocoilei in the muscles of experimentally and naturally infected sheep were consistent with a previously hypothesized “central nervous system to muscle” pattern of migration for P. odocoilei. Dimensions of granulomas associated with eggs of P. odocoilei and density of protostrongylid eggs and larvae in the cranial lung correlated with intensity of larvae in feces, and all varied with season of collection. Prevalence of P. stilesi based on the presence of larvae in feces underestimated true prevalence (based on examination of lungs) in wild Dall's sheep collected in summer and fall. Similarly, counts of both types of protostrongylid larvae in feces were unreliable indicators of parasitic infection in wild Dall's sheep with concomitant bacterial pneumonia associated with Arcanobacterium pyogenes, Pasteurella sp., and Mannheimia sp. Diffuse, interstitial pneumonia due to P. odocoilei led to fatal pulmonary hemorrhage and edema after exertion in one experimentally infected Stone's sheep and one naturally infected Dall's sheep. Bacterial and verminous pneumonia associated with pathogens endemic in wild Dall's sheep in the Mackenzie Mountains caused sporadic mortalities. There was no evidence of respiratory viruses or bacterial strains associated with domestic ruminants, from which this population of wild sheep has been historically isolated.

West Nile virus (WNV) has affected many thousands of birds since it was first detected in North America in 1999, but the overall impact on wild bird populations is unknown. In mid-August 2002, wildlife rehabilitators and local wildlife officials from multiple states began reporting increasing numbers of sick and dying raptors, mostly red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and great horned owls (Bubo virginianus). Commonly reported clinical signs were nonspecific and included emaciation, lethargy, weakness, inability to perch, fly or stand, and nonresponse to danger. Raptor carcasses from 12 states were received, and diagnostic evaluation of 56 raptors implicated WNV infection in 40 (71%) of these cases. Histologically, nonsuppurative encephalitis and myocarditis were the salient lesions (79% and 61%, respectively). Other causes of death included lead poisoning, trauma, aspergillosis, and Salmonella spp. and Clostridium spp. infections. The reason(s) for the reported increase in raptor mortality due to WNV in 2002 compared with the previous WNV seasons is unclear, and a better understanding of the epizootiology and pathogenesis of the virus in raptor populations is needed.

Carcasses from 346 raptors found between August 2001 and December 2004 were tested for West Nile virus (WNV) using virus isolation and immunohistochemistry; 40 were positive for WNV by one or both methods. Of these 40 birds, 35 had histologic lesions compatible with WNV infection, one had lesions possibly attributable to WNV, and four had no histologic evidence of WNV. The most common histologic lesions associated with WNV infection were myocardial inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis; skeletal muscle degeneration, inflammation, and fibrosis; and lymphoplasmacytic encephalitis. Other lesions included hepatitis, lymphoid depletion in spleen and bursa, splenic and hepatic hemosiderosis, pancreatitis, and ganglioneuritis. Gross lesions included calvarial and leptomeningeal hemorrhage, myocardial pallor, and splenomegaly. Red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) (10/56), sharp-shinned hawks (Accipiter striatus) (8/40), and Cooper's hawks (Accipiter cooperii) (10/103) were most commonly affected. Also affected were red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus) (2/43), an osprey (Pandion haliaetus) (1/5), barred owls (Strix varia) (4/27), a great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) (1/18), and eastern screech owls (Megascops asio) (4/42). Although birds were examined throughout the year, positive cases occurred only during the summer and late fall (June–December). Yearly WNV mortality rates ranged from 7–15% over the four years of the study. This study indicates trends in infection rates of WNV in raptorial species over a significant time period and supports the available information regarding pathology of WNV infection in Strigiformes and Falconiformes. Although many species tested were positive for WNV infection, severity of lesions varied among species.

Prion protein genes were sequenced in free-ranging Alaska caribou (Rangifer tarandus grantii). Caribou prion alleles are identical or nearly so to those of wapiti, white-tailed deer, and mule deer. Five single-nucleotide polymorphisms were detected with substitutions at residues 2 (V→M), 129 (G→S), 138 (S→N), 146 (N→N), and 169 (V→M). The 138N codon had been previously reported only in prion pseudogenes of other cervids. In caribou, the 138S and 138N alleles are present at frequencies of approximately 0.7 and 0.3, respectively, and they are seen in both homozygotes and heterozygotes of three geographically separated herds, each a component of the continental metapopulation. Genetics seems to permit the spread of chronic wasting disease from middle-latitude deer to high-latitude caribou in North America.

As part of conservation efforts between 1997 and 2001, more than 25% (332 animals) of the endangered Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi) population was sampled in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Serum samples were tested for antibodies to viruses, bacteria, and parasites known to cause morbidity and mortality in other marine mammal species. Antibodies were found to phocine herpesvirus-1 by using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, but seropositive results were not confirmed by virus neutralization test. Antibodies to Leptospira bratislava, L. hardjo, L. icterohaemorrhagiae, and L. pomona were detected in seals from several sites with the microagglutination test. Antibodies to Brucella spp. were detected using 10 conventional serologic tests, but because of inconsistencies in test results and laboratories used, and the lack of validation by culture, the Brucella serology should be interpreted with caution. Antibodies to B. canis were not detected by card test. Chlamydophila abortus antibodies were detected by complement fixation (CF) test, and prevalence increased significantly as a function of age; the low sensitivity and specificity associated with the CF make interpretation of results difficult. Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii and Dirofilaria immitis were rarely found. There was no serologic evidence of exposure to four morbilliviruses, influenza A virus, canine adenovirus, caliciviruses, or other selected viruses. Continuous surveillance provides a means to detect the introduction or emergence of these or other infectious diseases, but it is dependent on the development or improvement of diagnostic tools. Continued and improved surveillance are both needed as part of future conservation efforts of Hawaiian monk seals.

During 1996 to 1998, an average of 52% to 55% of the raccoon (Procyon lotor) population on Wolfe Island, Ontario was vaccinated against rabies during proactive trap-vaccinate-release (TVR) operations. However, during 1999, the percent of the population vaccinated declined to 39% and an outbreak (6 cases) of raccoon rabies occurred on the island from December 1999 to January 2000. The raccoon population on Wolfe Island declined dramatically (71% reduction) from 1,067 raccoons (mean density=8.4/km² [6.4–12.4, 95% CI]) during 1999 to 305 raccoons (mean density=2.4/km² [0.87–4.1, 95% CI]) in the spring of 2000. Raccoon density immediately following the outbreak was significantly lower in cells with rabies cases, suggesting that rabies had a negative effect on population size. However, raccoon density had doubled by 1 yr following the outbreak. Movement of raccoons on Wolfe Island was as great as 24 km. Male raccoons moved greater distances than females. Movements to surrounding islands were also noted for raccoons ear tagged on Wolfe Island which indicates the island could serve as a focus for greater geographic rabies spread. Point infection control (PIC) during 2000, TVR during 2001–02, and the aerial distribution of Vaccinia-Rabies Glycoprotein (V-RG) baits during 2000 and 2003–05 were used to eliminate rabies from Wolfe Island. No cases have been detected since late January 2000 (to February 2007).

The direct and indirect costs of suspected human rabies exposure were estimated for San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara counties, California, USA. Clinic, hospital, and county public health records (1998–2002) were examined to determine direct costs for postexposure prophylaxis (PEP), and 55 (41%) former patients were contacted to voluntarily provide estimates of their indirect costs associated with receiving PEP. Additional costs due to public health and animal control personnel responses to rabid animals were collected, including diagnostic testing and wages. The mean total cost of a suspected human rabies exposure was $3,688, the direct costs per case were $2,564, and the indirect costs were $1,124 of that total. About one third of the total cost for suspected human rabies exposure was attributed to indirect costs (e.g., lost wages, transportation, and day-care fees), most of which were not reimbursable to the patient.

Haptoglobin (Hp) is an acute-phase protein synthesized in the liver that circulates at elevated concentrations in response to tissue damage caused by inflammation, infection, and trauma. As part of a larger study, sera Hp concentrations were measured in temporarily captive (n=21) and free-range (n=38) western stock juvenile Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) sampled from 2003 to 2006. Baseline Hp concentration at time of capture was 133.3±17.4 mg/dl. Temporarily captive animals exhibited a 3.2-fold increase in Hp concentrations during the first 4 wk of captivity, followed by a return to entry levels by week 5. Haptoglobin levels were not influenced by age, season, or parasite load. There was a significant positive correlation between Hp concentrations and white blood cell count (P<0.001) and globulin levels (P<0.001) and a negative correlation to red blood cell count and hematocrit (P<0.001 for both). There was no correlation between Hp levels and platelet count (P=0.095) or hemoglobin (P=0.457). Routine blubber biopsies collected under gas anesthesia did not produce a measurable Hp response. One animal with a large abscess had an Hp spike of 1,006.0 mg/dl that returned to entry levels after treatment. In conclusion, serum Hp levels correlate to the stable clinical health status observed during captivity, with moderate Hp response during capture and initial acclimation to captivity and acute response to inflammation and infection.

From September 2001 to February 2005, observations of an island population of the New Zealand stitchbird (Notiomystis cincta) revealed a progressive feather-losing dermatitis, which developed during the breeding season around the birds' eyes, base of the bill, and ventral neck. The lesions were significantly more likely to develop in males (96%) than females (51%), with males exhibiting a more severe form of the condition at the end of the breeding season. Histology from a dead bird revealed the presence of ovoid burrowing mites within the lesions, and isolation of mites from skin crusts of a live bird were identified as Knemidocoptes spp. Although other factors might be involved in the expression of the condition, Knemidocoptes appears to be a likely causative agent in the development of skin lesions in this population.

In 2003 and 2005, mortality events were observed among hatch-year Olrog's gulls (Larus atlanticus) in a breeding colony in the Bahía Blanca estuary, Argentina. Freshly dead chicks were collected for parasitologic and parasite-associated pathologic studies. Profilicollis chasmagnathi was found at various intensities in all of the birds examined (n=28). On gross and histopathologic examinations, severe lesions ranging from intestinal obstruction to complete perforation were present in small and large intestines of the birds. Larval forms of P. chasmagnathi were being found in prey items of L. atlanticus in the study area, which suggests that diet may play a central role in the epidemiology of disease and mortality events in this species.

Two mountain lions (Puma concolor) were found dead in the Simi Hills area of southern California (Ventura County). Postmortem examination and toxicological analyses indicated that the cause of death was anticoagulant rodenticide intoxication. In addition, both lions had marked alopecia and skin crusts, caused by Notoedres cati. The diagnosis of notoedric mange was confirmed by histology and direct examination of mites obtained from skin scrapings of the two animals. Histologically, the affected skin showed acanthotic epidermis with parakeratosis and parasitic tunnels in the stratum corneum. This is the first report of the pathological changes associated with notoedric mange in free-ranging mountain lions.

The effectiveness of tiletamine plus zolazepam (Telazol) and xylazine as an immobilizing combination for fishers (Martes pennanti) was evaluated. Ten fishers were intramuscularly injected using a 5:3 mixture of Telazol (2.9±0.6 mg/kg [mean±SD]) and xylazine (2.1±0.4 mg/kg) at Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Michigan (USA) during May to October, 2001–05. Mean induction time was 4.7±4.4 min; mean recovery time was 94.6±46.0 min. There was no relationship between the amount (mg/kg) of Telazol-xylazine injected and time to first effect of immobilants, dosage and time to induction, or between dosage and time to recovery. Mean heart rate remained constant through 20 min postinduction. Respiratory rate and body temperature declined through 10 and 20 min postinduction, respectively. No mortality occurred and no adverse effects were observed in individuals up to 19 mo later. It was concluded that a 5:3 mixture of Telazol-xylazine is a safe and effective immobilizing agent for fishers when conducting nonsurgical field procedures. Immobilizing fishers with 6–7 mg/kg of the combination (3.8–4.4 mg/kg Telazol and 2.3–2.6 mg/kg xylazine) should provide ≥30 min of handling time and allow full recovery in <90 min.

Emerging infectious diseases are implicated in the declines and extinctions of amphibians worldwide. Ranaviruses in the family Iridoviridae are a global concern and have caused amphibian die-offs in wild populations in North America, Europe, South America, and in commercial populations in Asia and South America. The movement of amphibians for bait, food, pets, and research provides a route for the introduction of ranaviruses into naive and potentially endangered species. In this report, we demonstrate that the California tiger salamander, Ambystoma californiense, is susceptible to Ambystoma tigrinum virus (ATV). This virus has not been previously reported in California tiger salamander, but observed mortality in experimentally infected animals suggests that California tiger salamander populations could be adversely affected by an ATV introduction.

Data on rabies virus infection in bats that were submitted to the Alabama Department of Public Health from 1995–2005 were analyzed. Demographic factors, such as species and sex, and temporal aspects, such as yearly and monthly trends, were investigated. Thirteen species of bats were submitted, and of those, individuals from seven species were rabid; prevalence was highest in Lasiurus borealis and Pipistrellus subflavus and lowest in Eptesicus fuscus and Nycticeius humeralis. There was no difference in prevalence of rabies between sexes or years. Statistically, more rabid bats were submitted in August, September, and November; and fewer were submitted in March, June, and July. Results were similar to those from other regions of North America; these data from Alabama can help to present a more complete view of rabies in bats in North America.

From 1999 to 2006, 132 cases of raccoon rabies, caused by the raccoon variant of rabies virus, were confirmed in eastern Ontario, Canada. Trap-vaccinate-release (TVR) and point infection control (PIC) programs were implemented to control the disease; 43,014 raccoons (Procyon lotor) were vaccinated against rabies by injection (Imrab®3) during that period. Two vaccinated raccoons were diagnosed with rabies at 6 mo and at 2 wk postvaccination. One may have been due to a vaccination failure. The other was likely due to the animal being in the late stages of incubation for rabies at the time of vaccination. This information will be useful to wildlife rehabilitators and agencies that hold raccoons in captivity in that a vaccinated raccoon is not necessarily immune to rabies.

The presence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) in non-ruminant wildlife has raised questions regarding the role of these species in Johne's disease transmission. In this study we tested 472 tissues from 212 animals of six different species of scavenging mammals. All animals were taken from within a 210-square-mile area in Dane and Iowa counties of south central Wisconsin from September to May in 2003–04 and tested for the presence of MAP. We detected MAP-specific DNA in 81 of 212 (38%) scavenging mammals, in 98 of the 472 (21%) tissues; viable MAP was cultured from one coyote's ileum and lymph node tissue. Despite the low numbers of viable MAP isolated in this study, our data adds to the increasing evidence demonstrating the potential for transmission and infection of MAP in nonruminant species and provides possible evidence of interspecies transmission. The apparently high exposure of nonruminant wildlife provides potential evidence of a spill-over of MAP to wildlife species and raises the question of spillback to domestic and wild ruminants. These results demonstrate the importance of understanding the role of wildlife species in developing management strategies for Johne's disease in domestic livestock.

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) was diagnosed in a free-ranging moose (Alces alces shirasi) killed by a hunter in Jackson County, Colorado, USA, in September 2005. The diagnosis was based upon immunohistochemistry (IHC) demonstrating the presence of accumulations of CWD-associated prion protein (PrP^CWD) in tissue sections of medulla oblongata at the level of the obex (dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus) and in retropharyngeal lymph node (RPLN); additional testing by IHC revealed deposits of PrP^CWD in multiple sections of medulla oblongata and cervical spinal cord as well as palatine tonsil and submandibular lymph node tissues. Western blot confirmed the presence of PrP^CWD in RPLN and tonsil tissue. The PrP^CWD also was detected via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of RPLN tissue. Spongiform encephalopathy was observed in sections of the brainstem and cervical spinal cord, although no clinical signs were noted by the hunter who killed the animal. The affected moose was homozygous for methionine at codon 209 of the prion protein coding region. In October 2006, two additional free-ranging moose were diagnosed with CWD. Epidemiology and implications of CWD in moose remain to be determined.

We determined prevalence to feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) antibodies, feline leukemia virus (FeLV) antigen, and Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in feral cats (Felis catus) on Mauna Kea Hawaii from April 2002 to May 2004. Six of 68 (8.8%) and 11 of 68 (16.2%) cats were antibody positive to FIV and antigen positive for FeLV, respectively; 25 of 67 (37.3%) cats were seropositive to T. gondii. Antibodies to FeLV and T. gondii occurred in all age and sex classes, but FIV occurred only in adult males. Evidence of current or previous infections with two of these infectious agents was detected in eight of 64 cats (12.5%). Despite exposure to these infectious agents, feral cats remain abundant throughout the Hawaiian Islands.