Safe, effective, and reversible immobilization protocols are essential for the management of free-ranging red wolves (Canis rufus). Combinations using an α₂-adrenoceptor agonist and ketamine have been shown to be effective for immobilization but are not reversible and can produce severe hypertension and prolonged or rough recoveries. To minimize hypertension and provide reversibility, 24 red wolves were immobilized using three medetomidine–butorphanol (MB) combinations without the use of ketamine in the initial injection. All wolves were administered medetomidine (0.04 mg/kg i.m.) and butorphanol (0.4 mg/kg i.m.). Seven wolves received no other immobilization agents (MB wolves), nine received diazepam (0.2 mg/kg i.v.) at the time they were instrumented (MBD wolves), and eight received ketamine (1 mg/kg i.v.) 30 min after instrumentation (MBK30 wolves). Physiologic parameters were monitored during immobilization. The heart rate was similar among the three groups for the first 30 min, and marked bradycardia was noted in one wolf from each group. Hypertension was observed initially in all three groups but was resolved within 10–30 min. The MBK30 wolves had significant elevations in heart rate and transient hypertension after intravenous ketamine administration. Most wolves had mild to moderate metabolic acidemia. Immobilizing drugs were antagonized in all wolves with atipamezole (0.2 mg/kg i.m.) and naloxone (0.02 mg/kg i.m.). The medetomidine-butorphanol-diazepam wolves were also given flumazenil (0.04 mg/kg i.v.). All wolves were standing within 12 min and were fully recovered within 17 min. Medetomamine-butorphanol and MBD combinations provided effective and reversible immobilization of red wolves without the sustained hypertension associated with the use of α₂-adrenoceptor agonist–ketamine combinations. Delaying the administration of ketamine reduced its hypertensive effects.

A recently described mycoplasma, Mycoplasma alligatoris, was isolated from dead American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) that had demonstrated clinical signs of lethargy, anorexia, bilateral ocular discharge, edema, paraparesis, and polyarthritis. The in vitro minimum inhibitory concentration for nine antibacterial agents was determined through serial dilution in broth and plate culture for M. alligatoris isolates. The inhibitory concentration obtained for doxycycline, enrofloxacin, sarafloxacin, oxytetracycline, tilmicosin, and tylosin (<1 μg/ml) was lower than that of clindamycin (1–8 μg/ml), chloramphenicol (8–16 μg/ml), and erythromycin (32–138 μg/ml).

Hemograms and plasma chemistry values are presented for six male and six female, adult, clinically normal, captive Spanish imperial eagles (Aquila adalberti). No value was substantially different from that which might be predicted on the basis of work in other related species. This data should prove useful for the interpretation of laboratory findings in future clinical cases of this endangered species of eagle.

The prevalence of Chlamydophila psittaci (formerly Chlamydia psittaci) infection was assessed in 95 apparently healthy, captive Amazon parrots from three breeder collections in southeastern and west-central Brazil. Cloacal swabs from 95 birds were tested for chlamydial antigen, which was detected by direct immunofluorescence (DIF), and serum samples from 44 of these birds were tested for antibodies to C. psittaci using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The prevalences of active infection as detected by DIF were 16.7%, 22.2%, and 56.1%, and seroprevalences were 100%, 87.5%, and 60% in flocks A, B, and C, respectively. We can therefore infer that C. psittaci may be widespread in captive parrot populations in Brazil.

Hematology and serum biochemistry values are reported for 33 Attwater's prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) that were captive-reared at the San Antonio Zoo as part of a federal reintroduction program in Texas. Hematologic values include packed cell volume, and total and differential white blood cell counts. The biochemical values include concentrations of serum calcium, total protein, albumin, phosphorus, glucose, uric acid, and cholesterol. Mathematic computation of globulin concentration and albumin : globulin ratios were conducted. Also, determination of the serum activities of creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase was done.

This report describes stifle luxation resultant from multiple ligamentous injuries in a spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca). Despite an absence of obvious trauma in the case history, the tortoise presented with acute, unilateral hind limb lameness. Diagnosis of stifle luxation was based on cranial drawer motion, increased rotational joint instability, and radiographic findings. Joint stabilization was accomplished by a combination of cranial cruciate reconstruction using an autograft of lateral vastus muscle in an over-the-top procedure and lateral imbrication of the joint capsule. Postoperative management included restriction of limb movement for 6 wk and parenteral chondroprotective regime. Treatment was effective in restoring clinically normal function to the limb.

In May 1996 the Denver Zoological Gardens obtained two male and two female Pallas' cats (Otocolobus felis manul) that were wild-caught in the Ukraine. These animals were part of a group of 16 wild-caught adults (eight male and eight female) imported to the United States and Canada between 1995 and 1996. The Denver Zoological Gardens cats were quarantined at the zoo hospital for approximately 1 mo. During the quarantine period they were immobilized for physical examination, and sera were obtained from them to evaluate for exposure to Toxoplasma gondii. All cats were positive for T. gondii antibodies by latex agglutination (titers from 1:512 to 1:1024). After being paired for breeding, one pair produced two litters, and another pair produced four litters, a total of 17 kittens between 1997 and 2001. Four kittens and two young adults died from a disseminated granulomatous and necrotizing inflammation consistent with toxoplasmosis. Toxoplasma gondii infection was confirmed in all six deceased cats by polymerase chain reaction performed on formalin-fixed tissues. An additional five kittens disappeared and were not available for necropsy. The fatality rate from toxoplasmosis was 35.3% (6/17) for cats that were available for necropsy and could have been as high as 64.7% (11/17) if it were assumed that the disappeared kittens were also affected. The Pallas' kitten survival rate at the Denver Zoological Gardens was 35.3%. This article describes the clinical and pathologic features of toxoplasmosis in a group of Pallas' cats at the Denver Zoological Gardens.

A 25-yr-old male captive walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens Illiger) died after suffering from periods of inactivity, anorexia, and weight loss for 8 wk. Necropsy revealed prominent, generalized atherosclerosis of cardiac arteries with widespread chronic myocardial infarction. Severe disseminated myocardial fibrosis most likely resulted in insidious cardiac failure that was ultimately the cause of death. Bouts of abdominal pain and disseminated cutaneous ulcers that had been observed 3 and 4 days before death, respectively, were attributed to circulatory failure and thrombosis. The cause of the vascular lesions remains unknown. When compared with humans, atherosclerosis is rare in animals and has not been described in a walrus.

Two Asian small-clawed otters (Amblonyx cinereus) died acutely in their exhibit within a 4-day period. Neither animal had significant gross lesions at necropsy. Histologic findings were consistent with acute vascular shock and disseminated intravascular coagulation, and a toxic etiology was suspected. The animals' exhibit contained opened, uneaten loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) fruit with the seeds removed and large quantities of undigested loquat seed material in the feces of the remaining animals. Cyanide was detected in the stomach contents collected at necropsy and in fresh loquat seeds from the exhibit. Loquat is related to other cyanide-containing fruit trees, including cherries, peaches, and almonds.

Forty dog-faced fruit bats (Cynopterus brachyotis) were administered 1 drop of 1% ivermectin topically as part of a routine physical exam and deworming program, and 11 developed sudden generalized paresis. Six of the bats recovered within 24–48 hr, and the remaining 5 were presented recumbent and weak to the University of Florida Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital. Ivermectin toxicosis was suspected, and the admitted bats died or were euthanatized within 3–5 days of the development of clinical signs despite supportive care. Three of the dead bats had renal tubular necrosis.

A juvenile, female North American opossum (Didelphis virginiana) died of verminous pneumonia caused by Didelphostrongylus haysei despite aggressive treatment with oral fenbendazole, corticosteroids, and antibiotics. This prompted a retrospective study of lungworm infection in opossums, during which 19 additional necropsy reports from opossums were reviewed. Including the subject of this report, a total of 11 (55%) of these cases included a diagnosis of lungworm infection. This diagnosis was considered to have contributed to death in eight out of the 11 cases (73%). Histologically, 10 of the 11 (91%) opossums had granulomatous bronchopneumonia with small to moderate numbers of adult nematodes in the airways and parenchyma. Four of the 11 (36%) opossums had free larvae within the parenchyma or terminal airways. Inflammation was usually associated with larvae, degenerating parasites, and nonintact adult nematodes. Superimposed bacterial pneumonia was evident in three animals, and sections of lung examined from all the opossums were characterized by moderate to severe smooth-muscle hyperplasia in airways, including terminal respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts. Nine animals had prominent medial smooth-muscle hyperplasia in small- and medium-sized arterioles. Lesions in other organs, particularly in liver, heart, and gastrointestinal tract, were frequently identified. Three animals had concomitant septicemia or bacterial bronchopneumonia (or both), which contributed to the cause of death. Seven animals had gastric nematodosis (Physaloptera sp.), although three of them had been treated with a 14-day course of fenbendazole.

An adult, 23 yr-old, male greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) was repeatedly immobilized with combinations of etorphine, detomidine, and ketamine to provide medical and surgical care to chronic, bilateral, soft tissue lesions on the hind feet and to collect semen by electroejaculation. The rhinoceros was successfully immobilized on 24 occasions over a 55 mo period at approximately 8–10 wk intervals, 17 times with a combination of etorphine and detomidine (M99–D, i.m.) by projectile dart and seven times with a combination of etorphine, ketamine, and detomidine (M99–K–D, i.m.) by pole syringe. The combination of etorphine, detomidine, and ketamine repeatedly and safely induced prolonged anesthesia, and a suitable drug combination includes 3.5–3.8 mg etorphine, 14 mg detomidine, and 400 mg ketamine (M99-K-D) administered i.m. into the neck.

Thirteen wild-caught white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from two different holding sites were chemically immobilized to facilitate capture, processing, and translocation to a new facility. The deer were divided into two treatment groups on the basis of age and received i.m. injections of the immobilizing agents via remote drug delivery systems. Group 1 (<1 yr old; n = 6) animals were immobilized with a combination of xylazine 1 mg/kg i.m. and azaperone 0.3 mg/kg i.m. At the end of the procedure the deer received zuclopenthixol acetate 1 mg/kg i.m. and (to antagonize the xylazine) tolazoline 2 mg/kg i.m. Group 2 (>1 yr old; n = 7) deer were administered xylazine 1 mg/kg i.m., tiletamine–zolazepam 1 mg/kg i.m., and ketamine 1 mg/kg i.m. The deer in this group received a combination of azaperone 0.3 mg/kg i.m. and zuclopenthixol acetate 1 mg/kg i.m. before reversal with tolazoline 2 mg/kg i.m. All deer were recovered in a trailer before being moved in small groups to the new facility and released into the new enclosures. Azaperone and zuclopenthixol acetate provided short- and long-term relief from anxiety and allowed the animals to gradually become familiar with their new surroundings without excitement, injuries, or mortalities. Two deer exhibited mild signs of extrapyramidal side effects, which suggests that they may have received a relative overdose of the tranquilizers.

A recently weaned, stranded, male northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) pup that had been undergoing rehabilitation was found severely obtunded with hyponatremia, hypokalemia, hypochloremia, and hypophosphatemia after a history of intermittent regurgitation. The animal was euthanatized, and gross postmortem findings included multifocal abscessation affecting brain, spleen, kidney, muscle, and subcutaneous tissue. Scedosporium apiospermum and mixed bacteria were cultured from brain, kidney, and subcutaneous tissue. Histopathologic examination revealed multiple fungal granulomas of variable size in the kidneys, brain, liver, and skeletal muscle. This is the first report of S. apiospermum infection associated with lesions in a marine mammal.

A 1.7-kg mature, female brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) was diagnosed with egg retention. Eggs could not be manually stripped and so were surgically removed. To prevent future complications, bilateral ovariectomy was performed. Complications were minimal, and the fish resumed eating within 2 days. Sutures were removed 21 days after surgery. Ovariectomy in display aquarium fish is a viable option for the resolution of ovarian disease.

A 37-yr-old chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) died due to bacterial meningoencephalomyelitis. At necropsy, a mass was observed in the fundus of the gallbladder. Histopathologic examination resulted in a diagnosis of adenoma, the first diagnosis of a primary spontaneous neoplasm in the gallbladder of a non-human primate.