Introduction
Black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) and Yucatan spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis) are the only nonhuman primate species found in Belize. Black howler monkeys occupy the most restricted range of any other species in the genus Alouatta (Wolfheim, 1983), and are listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2006). The Yucatan spider monkey is listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2006). Both species are threatened with ongoing habitat loss and degradation (IUCN, 2006). Howler monkeys are the focus of the Community Baboon Sanctuary Conservation Program in an area along the Belize River (Horwich, 1990) and have been reintroduced in the Cockscomb Wildlife Reserve (Horwich et al., 1993). Data have been collected on black howler monkey group size and ranging behavior in two areas of Belize (Horwich et al., 2001; Pavelka, 2003), but no countrywide survey of the species has taken place since the 1980s (Horwich and Johnson, 1986). Spider monkeys are vulnerable to habitat fragmentation because they occur in low numbers, have low fecundity rates, and rely on ripe fruit, a patchily distributed food resource (Meffe and Carroll, 1994). Basic information on this species in Belize is lacking. A known area of spider monkey distribution in the Chiquibul protected area (comprised of the Chiquibul Forest Reserve and the Chiquibul National Park) is heavily frequented by illegal collectors of xaté palm leaves (Chamaedorea sp.). This activity has been prevalent since 1998 (Anon, 2005) and up to 1,000 illegal xaté collectors have been reported to camp and hunt in the area while harvesting the leaf (Friends for Conservation and Development, 2005). This must give cause for concern for the species even in a protected area.
Methods
We undertook a countrywide assessment of human/wildlife conflict among subsistence farmers in Belize from March to May 2006 (the results of which will be published elsewhere). As part of the survey we asked questions about the presence of howler monkeys, spider monkeys and Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii). The latter two species were chosen because they are amongst the first species to disappear from over-exploited forests (Bodmer et al., 1997) and are, as such, more vulnerable to population fragmentation and eventual extinction. Black howler monkeys were included in the list because they often inhabit similar riparian habitat to that of the Baird's tapir. Using a structured questionnaire, we surveyed all districts of Belize for evidence of crop raiding by wild animals. The villages surveyed were all outside protected areas and were selected because they were predominantly dependent on subsistence agriculture. Villages and communities whose livelihoods depended on employment in intensive agriculture such as cattle ranching, and sugar cane, citrus and banana plantations were excluded. The questionnaire was administered at every sixth house in a village to a person who worked on his/her farm. The respondents' farms or gardens were typically situated outside the villages surveyed and were visited when possible. When the questionnaire was completed, and if the respondent had not already mentioned the species as a crop raider, the respondent was asked about the presence of primates and tapirs in the area. GPS locations for each species were recorded if presence was reported by at least two respondents independently of one another in the village surveyed or, if the animals were directly observed, or if howler monkey vocalizations were heard. Howler vocalizations could occur at any time of the day or night. Early morning walks were taken in all forests where the focal species were reported as occurring. A GIS map was generated from these data.
Results
A total of 168 people were interviewed during the survey and 14.9% reported that howler monkeys were present near their farms or gardens. Reports of the presence of black howler monkeys came from all districts except Corozal, and these were verified in 43% of cases either by sighting or hearing the monkeys. The GIS map of these locations can be seen in Figure 1. Black howler monkeys were not reported as a crop raider by any of the survey respondents. This species was heard frequently in the watershed of the Temash River in southwestern Toledo and was also heard in undisturbed coastal forest in the southeast of Belize. Groups were also commonly reported and heard in the northern part of Cayo District where riparian forest is still common (Fig. 1). Spider monkeys were reported by respondents on seven occasions from three districts, including reliable reports from Orange Walk (Fig. 1) in the northwest of the country, where a group of about 10 animals was reported as living in a forest on the edge of a working quarry on the western border with Guatemala. A respondent in Toledo stated that a group of about eight spider monkeys raided his pineapple crop when it was ripe. All other reports of the species were recorded in Cayo District (Fig. 1).
Discussion
Neither primate species were reported as a serious crop raider in Belize. Unsurprisingly, black howler monkeys are widespread in the villages participating in the Community Baboon Sanctuary Conservation Program (Horwich, 1990). They also are present in the upper watershed of the Temash River in the southwest of Toledo District, where much of the forest was damaged by Hurricane Iris in 2001. Additionally, we believe our auditory detection of a group in undisturbed coastal forest in the southeast of Belize is a new report for this species. This area of forest is presently undisturbed as the inhabitants of the nearby village rely on fishing for their livelihood. The groups reported from the upper Temash River and in Cayo District all occur in unprotected areas of forest increasingly utilized for logging and agricultural purposes. Reports of spider monkeys were less frequent and came from only three districts, Orange Walk, Cayo and Toledo, but the survey team was unable to verify their presence. This may be because there are fewer spider monkeys, and/or because spider monkeys are more difficult to locate because they are more quiet and wary. The spider monkey population in Belize needs further surveys on its areas of distribution, along with research on abundance, density, connectivity and demographics in order to determine appropriate conservation actions. This report on the distribution of both species of non-human primates in Belize is not meant to be definitive but is a useful first step in identifying populations outside protected areas that need active conservation management. These areas include the Cayo District for both species and the upper watershed of the Temash River in the southwest of Toledo District for black howler monkeys. These populations would benefit from closer scrutiny to ascertain their long-term sustainability and their suitability for a potential conservation effort involving local stakeholders. Although there are far fewer reports of the presence of spider monkeys, they may be more common than this survey demonstrates, particularly in Belize's extensive protected areas' network, but determining this will require further investigation.
Acknowledgments
We are very grateful to the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland (Edinburgh Zoo) for fully funding this survey and to the Government of Belize, Department of Natural Resources for granting permission to undertake the work. We thank the farmers of Belize for their patience and time answering our questionnaire. We thank our field assistant, David Barclay for his help and good humor, and Dr. John Morris of the Government of Belize Institute of Archaeology for help while in the field. Isabel Gonzalez provided assistance with the map and, along with Arnaud Desbiez and Maria Elisa Hobbelink, provided helpful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript.
References
Notes
[1] Siân S. Waters, 14 Lindsay Gardens, Tredegar, Gwent NP22 4RP UK, e-mail: <sian_s_waters@hotmail.com>, and Oscar Ulloa, Department of Forestry, 24/25 Unity Blvd., Belmopan City, Belize.
