We propose that creating on-campus wildlife research projects propelled by undergraduate students and interns is a simple way to improve the quality of wildlife education and research. Wildlife educators and natural resource agencies alike have called for wildlife undergraduates to acquire more experience and technical and critical thinking skills before entering the work force. The benefits, especially in the aforementioned skills, from learning by experiencing are well documented. One way to increase learning experience opportunities and to include undergraduates in the research process is through the use of on-campus wildlife research projects. We used 2 on-campus research projects to illustrate the versatility and benefits of this approach. On the urban Texas A&M University (TAMU) campus (≈45,000 students, College Station), we established a fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) research project, and on the rural Sul Ross State University (SRSU) campus (≈2,400 students, Alpine, Texas), we established a scaled quail (Callipepla squamat) research project. We have incorporated on-campus wildlife research projects into the lesson plans of 4 broad categories of wildlife courses at SRSU and TAMU: wildlife ecology, population dynamics, habitat management, and wildlife management techniques. We have used the projects to provide “hands-on” wildlife experiences, which included capture and handling techniques, radiotelemetry, habitat measurements, population estimation, Geographic Information System (GIS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) technology, and data analysis and presentation. Student workers, interns, and volunteers are the driving force behind the research projects that have proven to be an excellent source of long-term data. Other benefits of on-campus wildlife research projects include a common research theme throughout the wildlife curriculum and less travel time commonly associated with traditional field labs. Additionally, research projects have boosted the profile of both departments on their respective campuses. We believe similar projects on raccoons (Procyon lotor), opossums (Didelphis virginianus), and feral cats (Felis catus) could provide other excellent on-campus research opportunities.

We conducted surveys twice annually from 1990–2003 to determine the occupancy and reproductive success of known and newly reported bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) nests in Oklahoma. During the study period, the number of nesting pairs of eagles increased from 0 to 41, and the number of young fledged per nest has remained between 1 and 2. The population and productivity level of bald eagles appear sufficient to declassify the species from its current listing as a federally threatened and state endangered species in Oklahoma.

The importance of riparian habitat in small-mammal sampling and conservation is unknown in the central Appalachian region, and the little research available has produced mixed results. In addition, studies have produced varied results when comparing small-mammal communities in edge and interior locations. We compared relative abundance and diversity of small mammals from pitfall trap arrays (per 100 trap-nights) between riparian (<100 m from water source) and upland (≥100 m from water source) habitats and between edge (<100 m from habitat edge) and interior (≥100 m from habitat edge) locations in northern West Virginia. Shannon diversity (P=0.010) and Pielou evenness (P=0.012) were higher in edge than interior trapping locations but similar between riparian and upland habitats. Meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus; P=0.012) and southern bog lemmings (synaptomys cooperi; P=0.001) were more abundant in edge than interior sites. We found no difference in abundance or diversity of small mammals between riparian and upland habitats. We suggest that sampling for inventory and monitoring purposes should be stratified by edge and interior locations to provide an accurate representation of diversity and abundance of small-mammal populations.

Once abundant and widely distributed, the Bahama parrot (Amazona leucocephala bahamensis) currently inhabits only the Great Abaco and Great Inagua Islands of the Bahamas. In January 2003 and May 2002–2004, we conducted point-transect surveys (a type of distance sampling) to estimate density and population size and make recommendations for monitoring trends. Density ranged from 0.061 (SE = 0.013) to 0.085 (SE = 0.018) parrots/ha and population size ranged from 1,600 (SE = 354) to 2,386 (SE = 508) parrots when extrapolated to the 26,154 ha and 28,162 ha covered by surveys on Abaco in May 2002 and 2003, respectively. Density was 0.183 (SE = 0.049) and 0.153 (SE = 0.042) parrots/ha and population size was 5,344 (SE = 1,431) and 4,450 (SE = 1,435) parrots when extrapolated to the 29,174 ha covered by surveys on Inagua in May 2003 and 2004, respectively. Because parrot distribution was clumped, we would need to survey 213–882 points on Abaco and 258–1,659 points on Inagua to obtain a CV of 10–20% for estimated density. Cluster size and its variability and clumping increased in wintertime, making surveys imprecise and cost-ineffective. Surveys were reasonably precise and cost-effective in springtime, and we recommend conducting them when parrots are pairing and selecting nesting sites. Survey data should be collected yearly as part of an integrated monitoring strategy to estimate density and other key demographic parameters and improve our understanding of the ecological dynamics of these geographically isolated parrot populations at risk of extinction.

There have been many documented cases of bird mortality along roadsides where salt was applied. Herbivorous and granivorous species, especially, are attracted to salt, probably to satisfy a dietary need. Because mortality appears to be primarily a result of vehicle strikes, most authors have assumed that salt was only indirectly responsible for the deaths—a case of “fatal attraction” to busy salted roads. Repeated observations of apparent behavioral toxicity along roadsides, as well as new information on the toxicology of oral salt ingestion in birds, now suggest that salt toxicity per se is contributing to the vulnerability of small songbirds to road traffic and perhaps is a direct cause of mortality in some birds. The difficulty of retrieving bird carcasses and the low rate of reporting suggest that kills probably are more widespread and frequent than indicated by documented reports alone. Most known cases of songbird mortality have occurred within a group of birds collectively known as winter finches belonging to the subfamily Carduelinae. This may result from a higher probability of exposure for these species because of their diet and presence in the snow belt but also may reflect a greater ease of detecting mortality incidents in species forming large feeding flocks. The high attraction of salted roads for winter finches suggests that the roads' ecological footprint is very large. We conclude that the importance of road salt as a mortality factor in these species long has been under-estimated by wildlife managers and transport personnel.

We evaluated translocation as a method to promote recovery of black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) after plague-induced population declines in colonies at the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. We translocated prairie dogs in June of 1999 and evaluated the effects of translocation on colony area 1 year and 4 years later. We also assessed effects of release group size and estimated rates of population growth and survival. Initial size of experimental colonies was categorized as inactive (0 ha), small (0.1–2.0 ha), or large (2.0–6.6 ha); numbers of prairie dogs translocated to each colony size class were 0 (control), 60, and 120. Among inactive colonies, the control remained inactive and the colony receiving 60 prairie dogs grew to 1.5 ha by 2000 and after a second release in 2002 was 1.9 ha in 2003. The colony receiving 120 grew to 3.3 ha by 2000 and decreased to 2.6 ha by 2003. Patterns on small and large colonies after 1 year were less dramatic, but in each case the proportional increase in colony area was lowest on the control and highest on the colony receiving 120 prairie dogs. Patterns were more difficult to discern 4 years after translocations. It appears that as large colonies approach historic size, area growth decreases and is slower than on small colonies. Experimental colonies grew 24.6 ha (315%) by 2000 and 72.1 ha (924%) in 4 years compared to non-experimental colonies of similar size that grew 6.5 ha (23%) in 1 year and 26.5 ha (93%) by 2003. Monthly survival rates of prairie dogs during the first 3 months following translocation were higher on large colonies (0.79, 95% CI=0.75–0.82) than on small (0.67, 95% CI=0.62–0.72) or inactive colonies, (0.63, 95% CI=0.57–0.68). Monthly survival rates were relatively high (0.88–1.0) during subsequent intervals and did not vary among initial colony size classes. Recapture rates for all colonies were higher during the fall trapping session (0.83, 95% CI=0.76–0.90) than in the winter (0.59, 95% CI=0.49–0.69). Translocation was effective for restoration of prairie dog populations, particularly on inactive colonies.

We examined use of 2 silvicultural treatments (clearcut and two-age harvests), 15–18 years post-harvest by cerulean warblers (Dendroica cerulea) in mixed mesophytic and northern hardwood forests of the Allegheny Mountain region in West Virginia. Cerulean warbler abundance and occurrence were greater in 70–80-year-old mature forests than in 15–18-year-old clearcuts. Although abundance did not differ statistically between clearcut and two-age treatments, it was almost 5 times greater in the two-age treatments, likely because they provided a more complex canopy structure. Abundance of cerulean warblers in unharvested periphery stands adjacent to clearcut and two-age harvests was similar to that in unharvested control stands, suggesting that small harvests within mature forest do not negatively impact cerulean warbler abundance in the remaining forest, only within the clearcut harvests themselves.

Ecological restoration of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests in the southwestern United States is a relatively new, adaptive management practice that potentially alters wildlife habitat during and immediately after restoration treatments. To determine whether restoration treatments affected Merriam's wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) use of roost sites, we relocated 91 of 120 turkey roost sites that originally had been mapped in 1985 in the Uinkaret Mountains of northern Arizona. We compared current turkey use of historical roost sites in stands that had been thinned and burned between 1995 and 2002 to adjacent (<800 m away) and distant (>800 m) stands. In 2002, 23 historical roosts were still in use, and in 2003, 13 were still in use, 5 of which had not been used in 2002. The number of historical roost sites still in use among treated, adjacent, and distant stands did not differ from that expected based on the total number of historical roosts in each stand type. We also searched for new roosts while traveling between historical roost sites and found 2.2 new roosts per hour searched in treated stands, 1.5 in adjacent stands, and 1.0 in distant stands. As expected, active roost sites in treated stands had significantly lower basal area, fewer stems, and less canopy cover compared to roost sites in untreated areas. However, roost trees in treated and untreated stands did not differ in diameter at breast height, height, or distance to the lower limb, indicating that treatment did not affect these characteristics. Several factors unique to our study site may have influenced our results: treated areas represented only 5% of total habitat available, treatments occurred primarily on flat areas and not on ridges or slopes, and treatments were implemented over several years.

Collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu) occur in the southwestern United States where fires can severely damage slow-growing, drought-resistant vegetation. Collared peccaries are herbivores and depend upon vegetation for food and cover. Coyotes (Canis latrans) are sympatric with collared peccaries and, in some areas, are significant predators of collared peccaries. Coyotes can affect prey populations directly by killing individuals and indirectly by influencing behavior, habitat use, and activity patterns. We evaluated the habitat use of collared peccaries in burned and unburned areas without coyotes present in 1998 and both with and without coyotes present in 2000. Collared peccaries used vegetation associations in the enclosure nonrandomly (P<0.10), with less use of burned areas than unburned areas. However, coyotes did not appear to influence habitat use of collared peccaries in the enclosure.

Due primarily to wolf (Canis lupus) predation on livestock (depredation), some livestock producers and other interest groups oppose wolf conservation, which is an important objective for large sectors of the public. Predicting depredation occurrence is difficult, yet necessary to prevent it. Better prediction of wolf depredation also would facilitate application of sound depredation management actions. In this paper we analyze temporal trends in wolf depredation occurrence and wolf control, which is employed as a depredation management action. We gathered data from wolf depredation investigations for Alberta, Canada, from 1982–1996 and for Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, USA, from 1987–2003. We showed that wolf attacks occurred with a seasonal pattern, reflecting the seasonality of livestock calving, grazing practices, and seasonal variation in energetic requirements of wolf packs. Seasonal wolf attacks were auto-correlated with lags of one year, indicating annual reoccurrence. Cross-correlation analyses indicated that limited wolf control was rapidly employed as a short-term response to depredation, and was not designed to decrease wolf depredation at a regional scale or in the long-term. We therefore discovered a reoccurring seasonal-annual pattern for wolf depredation and wolf control in western North America. Ranchers and managers could use our data for focusing investment of resources to prevent wolf depredation increases during high-depredation seasons.

Wolf (Canis lupus) depredations on livestock in Minnesota have been increasing over the last 20 years. A major explanation cited for this increase is wolf range expansion, but no studies have tested this explanation. Additional reasons could include 1) wolf colonization of new areas within long-existing wolf range, 2) learning by wolves in established range, and 3) increased wolf density. We did not assess increasing wolf density as a factor because estimated wolf density in Minnesota has not increased. To assess how each of the other factors might have affected depredations, we created and analyzed a database of Minnesota's 923 verified depredations at 435 farms. We graphed the numbers of verified depredations and the number of farms with verified depredations to assess temporal trends and used ArcView GIS software to assess spatial relationships of the depredations. All 3 factors tested (colonization, range expansion, and learning) seemed to have contributed to wolf depredation increase. However, the proportion of depredations occurring due to wolf range expansion increased from 20% in 1989 to 48% in 1998.

Developing sound conservation strategies for carnivores in fragmented landscapes relies on accurate distribution information. Fecal (scat) surveys can provide an effective survey technique, especially when collection of scats is followed by genetic analysis of DNA extracted from scats. Furthermore, use of specially trained detection dogs to locate scats on survey routes may greatly enhance scat recovery. We evaluated utility of scat-detection dog surveys as a method to determine current distribution of kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis mutica). We used a trained dog to locate scats in core and satellite population areas with various densities and different habitat conditions. We compared number of scats found per kilometer on transects along different road and vegetation types. Scat-detection dog surveys detected the presence of kit foxes in each population area searched, regardless of relative fox density and vegetation type. We found a greater number of scats on unpaved than paved roads, suggesting unpaved roads are more appropriate for monitoring of foxes. Additionally, we found a greater number of scats in saltbush (Atriplex polycarpa) scrub than in non-native grassland. This result was strongly influenced by latitude, and was probably related to a north–south precipitation gradient. Our results demonstrate that scat-detection dog surveys can provide an effective conservation tool to map current kit fox distribution. This survey method has a wide application to other carnivore species, and can be used to survey multiple species simultaneously.

We documented behaviors that wild pumas (Puma concolor) exhibited when approached by researchers during a 10-year study of a puma population in New Mexico. We approached and visually observed responses of 75 radiocollared pumas on 251 occasions and 7 noncollared pumas on 5 occasions. These pumas seldom had contact with people, except in the context of puma research activities. Pumas we approached included adult females with nursing (n=71) and weaned (n=46) cubs, solitary independent females (n=77), solitary independent males (n=46), breeding pairs (n=5), and weaned cubs in the absence of their mother (n=11). Approach distance ranged from 2–400 m (median=30.8 m), number of observers ranged from 1–8 people (median=2), and duration of observation ranged from <1 to >120 minutes. Pumas exhibited threat behavior (e.g., hissed, growled, approached, charged) in 16 instances (6% of observations). Females accompanied by cubs exhibited 14 of the 16 threats. Although we observed all threats when we were 2–50 m away (median=18.5 m), in another 156 observations when we approached to within similar distances (range = 3–50 m, median = 20.0 m), pumas showed no threat response. In these cases, the pumas left the area (n=114), watched us without leaving (n=37), or showed no detectable response (n=5). These responses by pumas to human approaches provide insight into the range in behaviors exhibited by pumas in environments where they have not become habituated to humans. This may aid our understanding of puma behavior, including interpretations of behaviors that might be exhibited by pumas in more human-dominated environments.

Predatory behavior of wolves (Canis lupus) was studied in 2 wolf territories in Scandinavia. We used hourly data from Global Positioning System (GPS)-collared adult wolves in combination with Geographic Information System (GIS) for detailed analyses of movement patterns. We tested the hypothesis that wolves spend 1–2 days close to larger prey such as moose (Alces alces) and reasoned that 1–2 locations per day would be enough to find all larger prey killed by the wolves. In total, the study period comprised 287 days and yielded 6,140 hourly GPS positions, with an average of 21.4±2.4 (SD) daily positions. Depending on the radius used to define clusters, 4,045–5,023 (65.9–81.8%) positions were included in 622–741 GPS-clusters. We investigated all positions within clusters in the field, and 244 (22%) single positions. In total, we found 68 moose and 4 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and classified them as wolf-killed within the study period. Another 10–15 moose may have been killed but not found. The GIS analyses indicated the proportion of wolf-killed ungulates included in GPS clusters to be strongly dependent on both number of positions per day and the radius used for defining a set of spatially aggregated GPS positions as a cluster. A higher proportion (78%) of killed prey in clusters based on nighttime (2000–0700) than those based on daytime (0800–1900) positions (41%). Simulation of aerial search during daylight hours for killed moose resulted in a serious underestimation (>60%) as compared to the number of wolf-killed moose found during the study. The average kill rate, corrected for 14% nondetected moose, in the territories was 3.6–4.0 days per killed moose. We concluded that the feeding behavior of wolves in Scandinavia was either different from wolves preying on moose and living at the same latitude in North America, or that estimates of wolf kill rates on moose may have been seriously underestimated in previous North American studies.

Topography, vegetation, and animal behavior may influence the performance of Global Positioning System (GPS) telemetry collars, affecting fix success rates and location error. We reviewed the scientific literature published from 1995 to June 2004 to determine the fix intervals used and fix success rates obtained in studies using GPS telemetry. We also programmed GPS telemetry collars with 6 different fix intervals and placed them at fixed locations of varying topography in the Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge, Arizona from August 2003–May 2004. Fix interval affected fix success rates both in our field study (99, 98, 96, 94, 93, 92% fix success rate for 0.25, 0.5, 1, 4, 6, and 13-hour fix intervals, respectively) and in our analysis of data obtained from scientific literature (r²=0.531, P≤0.001), with shorter fix intervals being associated with higher fix success rates. Topography affected the fix success rate (F_{2, 77}=12.017, P≤0.001), location error (F_{2, 77}=6.76, P=0.002), and proportion of 3-dimensional (3-D) fixes (F_2,77=10.184, P≤0.001), resulting in lower fix success rates and larger location errors in areas with more rugged topography. The influence of topography and fix interval on location error and fix success rates may bias GPS location data, resulting in misclassification of habitat use and under-sampling certain areas used by animals. Location error and missing data can increase type II error and may result in incorrect inferences in some studies. These biases need to be assessed and steps should be taken to minimize their influence on results of studies of habitat selection and other aspects of animal ecology.

The advancing role of Global Positioning System (GPS) technology in ecology has made studies of animal movement possible for larger and more vagile species. A simple field test revealed that lengths of GPS-based movement data were strongly biased (P<0.001) by effects of forest canopy. Global Positioning System error added an average of 27.5% additional length to tracks recorded under high canopy, while adding only 8.5% to open-canopy tracks, thus biasing comparisons of track length or tortuosity among habitat types. Other studies may incur different levels of bias depending on GPS sampling rates. Ninety-nine percent of track errors under high canopy were ≤7.98 m of the true path; this value can be used to set the scale-threshold at which movements are attributed to error and not biologically interpreted. This bias should be considered before interpreting GPS-based animal movement data.

We analyzed counts, vital rates, and limiting factors for northern Yellowstone elk (Cervus elaphus) before and after wolf (Canis lupus) restoration in 1995–1996 to evaluate predictions that elk numbers would move to a lower equilibrium point with corresponding density-related changes in vital rates. Elk counts decreased from approximately 17,000 in 1995 to 8,335 in 2004. Pregnancy rates for prime-age females (3–15 years) during 2000–2003 were high (0.90) and similar to those during 1950–1967 when elk density was 30% lower (5–9 elk/km²). The survival rate for prime-aged females was 0.85 (95% CI = 0.81–0.87) compared to 0.99 when harvests were low and wolves absent. The proportions of elk harvested each year increased as elk numbers decreased during 1990–2002 but departed from this anti-regulatory trend as permit levels were reduced in 2003–2004. Snow pack strongly influenced elk vulnerability to hunting by increasing migration to lower elevations. Thus, harvests removed a relatively constant proportion (27±5%) of animals that migrated out of the park each year, primarily prime-aged females with high reproductive value. Conservative estimates of wolf off-take (>1,000 elk) exceeded harvests by 2003, with wolves primarily selecting calves and older elk with lower reproductive value. Recruitment decreased as the ratio of wolves to elk increased, and wolves maintained high kill rates and rapid population growth despite a 50% decrease in elk counts. Elk numbers likely will continue to decrease until 1) levels of harvest and predation decrease sufficiently, 2) there is sufficient time for recruitment of calves to prime breeding age, and 3) there is a numerical response of wolves to fewer elk. We recommend that managers quickly adjust antlerless permit quotas to population size in a density-dependent manner so that harvests do not accelerate the decrease in elk numbers.

Understanding the determinants of population size and performance for desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis mexicana) is critical to develop effective recovery and management strategies. In arid environments, plant communities and consequently herbivore populations are strongly dependent upon precipitation, which is highly variable seasonally and annually. We conducted a retrospective exploratory analysis of desert bighorn sheep population dynamics on San Andres National Wildlife Refuge (SANWR), New Mexico, 1941–1976, by modeling sheep population size as a function of previous population sizes and precipitation. Population size and trend of desert bighorn were best and well described (R² = 0.89) by a model that included only total annual precipitation as a covariate. Models incorporating density-dependence, delayed density-dependence, and combinations of density and precipitation were less informative than the model containing precipitation alone (ΔAICc=8.5–22.5). Lamb:female ratios were positively related to precipitation (current year: F_1,34=7.09, P=0.012; previous year: F_1,33=3.37, P=0.075) but were unrelated to population size (current year: F_1,34=0.04, P=0.843; previous year: F_1,33=0.14, P=0.715). Instantaneous population rate of increase (r) was related to population size (F_1,33=5.55; P=0.025). Precipitation limited populations of desert bighorn sheep on SANWR primarily in a density-independent manner by affecting production or survival of lambs, likely through influences on forage quantity and quality. Habitat evaluations and recovery plans for desert bighorn sheep need to consider fundamental influences on desert bighorn populations such as precipitation and food, rather than focus solely on proximate issues such as security cover, predation, and disease. Moreover, the concept of carrying capacity for desert bighorn sheep may need re-evaluation in respect to highly variable (CV = 35.6%) localized precipitation patterns. On SANWR carrying capacity for desert bighorn sheep was zero when total annual precipitation was <28.2 cm.

We measured metabolites of progesterone (progestins) in fecal samples collected from captive Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) females in postpartum (n=8), nonpregnant (n=9), and pregnant (n=8) reproductive stages between 1996 and 1998. We analyzed progestins using enzyme-immunoassays for pregnanediol and 20-oxo-pregnanes, respectively. Progestin concentrations were elevated for 3 days after parturition and then decreased to basal anestrous concentrations. Ovarian cyclicity resumed 25±2.4 days after parturition in 5 of the 8 females monitored. In nonpregnant females, excretion of fecal progestins followed a cyclic pattern increasing 6- to 12-fold from the follicular to the luteal phase. Fecal progestin concentrations allowed discrimination between pregnant and nonpregnant females after 3 months of gestation (P<0.01), mean concentration of the tested hormone metabolites being at least 3 times higher during mid and later stages of gestation (>3 months) than during early pregnancy (0–3 months). These data were subsequently used to set criteria for designation of a cow as pregnant in 55 free-ranging Arabian oryx in the reserve of Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabia sampled in 1998–1999 and 2003. The proportion of pregnant and nonpregnant oryx correctly identified by the test was 81% and 83%, respectively, when using both progestin assays. Despite a limited sample size, our results provide evidence that fecal progestin analysis is a reliable non-invasive method to determine the reproductive status of captive Arabian oryx and that it also can provide reasonably accurate physiological indices of pregnancy status in free-ranging specimens.

Harvest data often are used to model deer (Odocoileus sp.) population growth and evaluate harvest strategies. Understanding factors that may influence harvest-reporting rates among methods of data collection is important in assessing the reliability of harvest data. Our objectives were to compare deer harvest-reporting rates over a 3-year period between mail-in archery-kill report cards (AKRC) and hunter surveys (HS) from the same group of bowhunters, assess the effects of harvest incentive programs, and evaluate factors influencing harvest-reporting rates. Estimated deer harvest, based on the HS, was almost 2.5 times greater than estimated harvest from AKRC. Of hunters initially classified as unsuccessful because no AKRC were submitted, 61% reported harvesting a deer on the HS. The HS appeared to better reflect actual deer harvest, and AKRC were more representative of actual harvest when harvest incentives were provided. Hunters classified as “less active” reported harvesting more deer on the HS than on AKRC for only 1 of 3 years, while hunters classified as “more active” reported harvesting more deer on the HS than on AKRC for all 3 years. Harvest incentives such as “earn a buck” or “earn a trip” may increase harvest and harvest-reporting rates. Hunters who spent much time hunting and harvested multiple deer in a season appeared to be more relaxed about reporting harvest on AKRC than hunters who spent less time hunting and harvested fewer deer. We concluded that harvest incentives will increase harvest-reporting rates, especially in areas with high deer populations, and that caution should be used when evaluating effects of harvest incentive programs.

Ricefields are important foraging habitat for waterfowl and other waterbirds in several North American wintering areas, including the Mississippi Alluvial Valley (MAV). Rice growers are likely to adopt management practices that provide habitat for waterfowl if agronomic benefits also occur. Therefore, we conducted a replicated field experiment during autumn through spring 1995–1997 to study effects of postharvest field treatment and winter-water management on agronomic variables including biomass of residual rice straw, cool-season grasses and forbs (i.e., winter weeds), and viability of red rice (oryza sativa var.). The treatment combination of postharvest disking and flooding until early March reduced straw 68%, from 9,938 kg/ha after harvest to 3,209 kg/ha in spring. Treatment combinations that included flooding until early March were most effective in suppressing winter weeds and decreased their biomass in spring by 83% when compared to the average of other treatment combinations. Effects of treatment combinations on spring viability of red rice differed between winters, but no significant effects were found within winters. Autumn disking followed by flooding until early March reduced rice straw and suppressed winter weeds the most, but with additional costs. To obtain the most agronomic benefits, we recommend that rice growers forgo autumn disking and flood fields until early March, which will provide moderate straw reduction, good weed suppression, and predicted savings of $22.24–62.93/ha (U.S.) ($9.00–25.47/ac). Maintenance of floods on ricefields until early March also benefits waterfowl and other waterbirds by providing foraging habitat throughout winter.

Waterfowl managers in Minnesota and other states are concerned that increased kill rates associated with the use of spinning-wing decoys (SWDs) may negatively affect local breeding populations of mallards (Anas platyrhynchos). Accordingly, we conducted 219 experimental hunts to evaluate hunting vulnerability of mallards to SWDs during the 2002 duck season in Minnesota. During each hunt, we tested 2 SWD treatments: 1) SWDs turned OFF (control), and 2) SWDs turned ON (experimental) during alternate 15-minute sampling periods that were separated by 5-minute buffer periods. We found that mallard flocks (≥1 duck) were 2.91 times more likely to respond (i.e., approach within 40 m of hunters), and sizes of responding mallard flocks were 1.25 times larger, on average, when SWDs were turned ON than OFF. Mallards killed/hour/hunter/hunt averaged 4.71 times higher (P<0.001) when SWDs were turned ON than OFF. More hatch-year (HY) and after-hatch-year (AHY) mallards were killed when SWDs were turned ON than OFF; however, AHYs were relatively less likely than were HYs to be killed with SWDs turned ON. We found no evidence that SWDs reduced crippling or allowed hunters to harvest relatively more drakes than hens. Using a worst-case scenario model, we predicted that if 47% and 79% of Minnesota hunters had used SWDs in 2000 and 2002, respectively, Minnesota mallard harvests would have increased by a factor of 2. However, increasing use of SWDs by northern hunters may result in a partial redistribution of annual mallard harvests if naïve ducks are harvested upon initial exposures to SWDs, and those ducks that survive become habituated to SWDs, as suggested by our results. Our study was confined to a single hunting season in Minnesota and thus did not assess whether vulnerability of mallards to hunters using SWDs varied among years or geographically. A multi-year, flyway-wide study is needed to make stronger and more rigorous inferences regarding potential changes in harvest distribution and annual harvest rates of mallards due to increasing use of SWDs by hunters in North America.

We compared lead shot ingestion rates and bone lead levels in mottled ducks (Anas fulvigula maculosa) for regional differences and evaluated 16 years of lead shot ingestion data for evidence of decline. Gizzards (n=6,850) of hunter-killed mottled duck were collected from 1987–2002. The mean lead shot ingestion rate of mottled ducks from the Central Texas Coast and Upper Texas Coast was 7.32%±1.13% (SE) and 18.09%±1.55%, respectively. Lead shot ingestion rates declined gradually during the study period (P = 0.046). During the 1998–1999 hunting season, we examined lead concentrations in wing bones of 148 hunter-killed mottled ducks from the Central Texas, Upper Texas, and Southwest Louisiana coastal regions. Lead concentrations averaged 16.62 ppm±1.83 (SE) and did not differ among regions or age groups. Both lead shot ingestion rates and bone lead concentrations in mottled ducks remain high. Studies evaluating the effects of lead levels on mottled duck survival are needed.

Total body electrical conductivity (TOBEC) has become an increasingly employed method of estimating lean and lipid mass in small birds and mammals. The TOBEC value of an animal is highly correlated with lean mass. Prediction of lean mass with a linear regression equation allows for estimation of lipid mass by subtracting lean mass from total body mass (2-stage model). The accuracy of 2-stage models for predicting lipid mass has been questioned by previous investigators, who suggested that lipid mass was predicted more accurately directly from body mass and TOBEC (direct model). We examined the accuracy of TOBEC for predicting lipid mass in the eastern woodrat (Neotoma floridana) and southern plains woodrat (Neotoma micropus). Four 2-stage models, varying in the use of TOBEC as the independent or dependent variable and in the use of a transformed TOBEC value, were tested. Three direct models were tested in which lipid mass was predicted from TOBEC value or transformed TOBEC value and body mass. The direct models performed much better than 2-stage models in predicting lipid mass, with a relative error in predicted lipid mass of 80% less than the best 2-stage model. There was little difference in predictive error between 2-stage models that used TOBEC as the independent or dependent variable. The TOBEC value transformed for body geometry did not greatly improve either the 2-stage or direct models. Total body electrical conductivity showed potential in the prediction of lipid mass in woodrats and was the most accurate non-invasive method of determining lipid mass available.

Despite the widespread use of Sherman (H. B. Sherman Inc., Tallahassee, Flor.) and Longworth (Penlon Ltd., Oxford, U.K.) live traps in small-mammal-community assessment, few studies have directly compared the effectiveness of these 2 popular models. This study compared the relative efficacy of both trap types in capturing small mammals in southern Wisconsin grasslands. As trap size may cause capture bias, we compared Longworth traps with equal numbers of small and large, folding Sherman traps. We also deployed a small number of pitfalls. We carried out trapping at 12 sites over a 2-year period (1996–1997). We observed a significant year effect, so we analyzed differences in capture success, species diversity indices, and percent community similarity between trap types separately for each year. Two-way contingency table analyses indicated that all 3 trap types exhibited species-specific differences in capture rates. We assessed standardized deviates for each cell within this two-way design, and we considered departures greater than 2 standard deviations (SE±1.96) from the mean to show an either significantly positive (≥ 1.96) or significantly negative (≤−1.96) association. In the first year, Longworth traps captured greater numbers of long-tailed shrews (Sorex spp.) whereas small Sherman traps captured more western harvest mice (Reithrodontomys megalotis) and white-footed or prairie deer mice (Peromyscus spp.). In the second year, small Sherman captures were greater for long-tailed shrews and western harvest mice while large Sherman traps captured more meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) and jumping mice (Zapus hudsonius). Although estimates of community diversity were similar between trap types, percent community similarity estimates were lowest for Longworth-Sherman trap comparisons. Mortality rates were highest for Longworth traps and small Sherman traps and lowest for large Sherman traps. Pitfalls caught proportionally more long-tailed shrews than conventional live traps in the first but not the second year of study. In general, body mass of the animal had little effect on trap capture rates. However, in the first year of this study, small Sherman traps caught lighter (P =0.028) long-tailed shrews than the large Sherman traps. Similarly, Longworth traps caught significantly lighter white-footed/prairie deer mice than either small (P=0.022) or large (P= 0.035) Shermans. When used in combination, both Longworth and Sherman traps can diminish overall sampling error and yield less biased estimates of species composition than either trap type alone. The use of new as opposed to used Sherman traps in the second year of this study might account for the greater capture efficacy of these traps and contribute to differences in relative trap type success between years.

We used molecular genetic methods to determine the sex of 138 sea otters (Enhydra lutris) harvested from 3 regions of Alaska from 1994 to 1997, to assess the accuracy of post-harvest field-sexing. We also tested each of a series of factors associated with errors in field-sexing of sea otters, including male or female bias, age-class bias, regional bias, and bias associated with hunt characteristics. Blind control results indicated that sex was determined with 100% accuracy using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification using primers that co-amplify the zinc finger-Y-X gene, located on both the mammalian Y- and X-chromosomes, and Testes Determining Factor (TDF), located on the mammalian Y-chromosome. DNA-based sexing revealed that 12.3% of the harvested sea otters were incorrectly sexed in the field, with most errors (13 of 17) occurring as males incorrectly reported as females. Thus, female harvest was overestimated. Using logistic regression analysis, we detected no statistical association of incorrect determination of sex in the field with age class, hunt region, or hunt type. The error in field-sexing appears to be random, at least with respect to the variables evaluated in this study.

The wide use of radiotelemetry in avian field studies justifies the continued search for improved methods of attaching transmitters. Subcutaneous implantation of radiotransmitters into the furcular cavity of birds has been proposed to ameliorate many deleterious effects of radiotransmitters (J. Berdeen, South Carolina Cooperative Research Center, personal communication). Using wild adult chukars (Alectoris chukar) brought into captivity, we implanted radiotransmitters subcutaneously into their furcular cavity and compared a suite of behavioral, endocrinological, and physiological measures in implanted chukars with controls. Implanted chukars did not differ from controls in maintenance, agonistic, or reproductive behaviors during 11 weeks of observation. Implanted chukars also did not differ from control chukars in an array of blood values designed to test for infection or implant rejection and did not experience chronic stress based on circulating corticosterone levels. Necropsy indicated complete healing of insertion sites with no signs of infection, foreign body reaction, or rejection. Implanted chukars did not differ from controls in mass, body fat, fecundity, or reproductive condition. We conclude that subcutaneous implantation of radiotransmitters into the furcular cavity was well tolerated by chukars and may prevent deleterious effects associated with other methods of transmitter placement.

Many animal surveys to estimate populations or index trends include protocol prohibiting counts during rain but fail to address effects of rainfall preceding the count. Prior research on Pacific Coast band-tailed pigeons (Patagioenas fasciata monilis) documented declines in use of mineral sites during rainfall. We hypothesized that prior precipitation was associated with a short-term increase in use of mineral sites following rain. We conducted weekly counts of band-tailed pigeons at 19 Pacific Northwest mineral sites in 2001 and 20 sites in 2002. Results from regression analysis indicated higher counts ≤2 days after rain (11.31 ± 5.00% [x̄ ± SE]) compared to ≥3 days. Individual index counts conducted ≤2 days after rain were biased high, resulting in reduced ability to accurately estimate population trends. Models of band-tailed pigeon visitation rates throughout the summer showed increased mineral-site counts during both June and August migration periods, relative to the July breeding period. Our research supported previous studies recommending that mineral-site counts used to index the band-tailed pigeon population be conducted during July. We further recommend conducting counts ≥3 days after rain to avoid weather-related bias in index estimation. The design of other population sampling strategies that rely on annual counts should consider the influence of aberrant weather not only coincident with but also preceding surveys if weather patterns are thought to influence behavior or detection probability of target species.

This study reports the first successful husbandry and breeding in captivity of wild-caught greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus). In October 2003, 21 hatch-year greater sage-grouse were trapped in northwestern Nevada and transported to Fort Collins, Colorado. We held grouse in pens at the United States Department of Agriculture's National Wildlife Research Center for 8 months. We offered a varied diet, including native food items such as sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata and A. tripartita) and yarrow (Achillea millefolium). We housed grouse in a large flight pen and allowed to them free range as one flock. Mortality rate was 16.7%. Several of the grouse exhibited breeding behavior, and 13eggs were laid. We describe the techniques used to house and feed wild-caught sage-grouse. This study has conservation implications for captive breeding of this species of concern.

Nests of radiotransmittered wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) that are destroyed or abandoned prior to incubation are particularly difficult to locate. As a result researchers often report only incubated nests or estimate numbers of nests attempted by localization of movement or other behavioral changes without quantification. We used radiotelemetry to obtain movement data on female wild turkeys during the nesting season (1 Apr-30 Jun) in South Dakota. We collected prelaying (1 April until 14 days before the female initiated incubation) and laying (<14 days before incubation) movement distances from 160 adult female wild turkeys [75 eastern (M. g. silvestris), 19 Rio Grande (M. g. intermedia), and 66 Merriam's (M. g. merriami) wild turkeys]. Our objectives were to quantify the relationship between movement behavior and nesting attempts to allow more accurate determination of initiation of nesting for calculation of nest rates, nesting success, and renesting rates. Daily movements of females decreased abruptly when they transitioned from prelaying to laying behaviors. Movements of females that were less than 364.9 m for eastern turkeys, 115.0 m for Rio Grande turkeys, and 331.0 m for Merriam's turkeys were indicative of nest initiation. Changes in movements of females can identify nesting wild turkeys and can be used post hoc to identify nests that were abandoned or destroyed prior to incubation if sufficient locations are collected. Following our analysis, we estimated that females had an additional 46 nests (eastern = 15, Rio Grande = 7, and Merriam's = 24), which we used in estimating reproduction parameters. Quantitative comparisons of movements between prelaying and laying confirmed a behavioral change of localized movements concurrent with nest initiation in wild turkey females.

Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) populations in southwestern rangelands are influenced by precipitation; populations increase during relatively wet periods and decrease during drought. Understanding the demographic responses of bobwhites to fluctuations in precipitation might provide a basis for identifying mechanisms responsible for the phenomenon. We compared 10 population variables (bobwhite survival, nesting-season length, nest success, hen success, percent hens nesting and renesting, nesting rate, percent juveniles in fall harvest sample (Nov–Feb), clutch size, and egg hatchability) between a dry (Sep 2000–Aug 2001; 51 cm precipitation) and wet period (Sep 2002–Aug 2003; 93 cm precipitation) in Brooks County, Texas. We monitored radiomarked bobwhites on 3 sites during the dry (n=263 bobwhites) and wet period (n=191 bobwhites) to obtain estimates of survival and reproductive effort. Bobwhite survival curves differed between the dry period (0.30±0.04; Ŝ±SE, n=102 bobwhites) and wet period (0.60± 0.06; n=71 bobwhites; P≤0.001) during fall-winter (Sep–Feb). A lower proportion of hens nested during the dry period (95% CI: 52.6±22.5 %; n=19 hens) compared to the wet period (100%; n=15 hens). Of hens that nested, the dry period exhibited a lower nesting rate (95% CI: 1.2±0.3 nests/hen) compared to the wet period (95% CI: 2.3±0.5 nests/hen). The dry period also experienced a shorter nesting season (69 days) compared to wet period (159 days). Lastly, percent juveniles (Nov–Feb) was lower during the dry period (95% CI: 69.3±0.3 %; n=740 harvested bobwhites) compared to wet period (95% CI: 78.3±2.1%; n=1,415 harvested bobwhites). Our field study highlights 4 demographic variables (i.e., survival, percentage of hens nesting, nesting rate, and nesting-season length) that warrant further research to identify causal factors responsible for the boom-and-bust phenomenon in bobwhites. Further, our data suggest that drought negatively impacts bobwhite reproductive effort such that harvest should be reduced or ceased during drought (e.g., <50 cm annual precipitation).

Invertebrates are an important food source for grouse chicks, especially within the first 2 weeks of life. Invertebrate abundance is highly patchy and dependent upon herbaceous cover and vegetation structure. We examined the relationship between invertebrate biomass (from sweepnet samples) and habitat structure at lesser prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus) brood-use and non-use areas during 2001 and 2002 in a sand sagebrush (Artemisia filifolia) prairie vegetation community of southwestern Kansas. We delineated use and non-use areas from paired sampling points within and outside 95% utilization distributions of radiomarked brood females, respectively, during the first 60 days post-hatch. We measured vegetation cover and invertebrate biomass (Acrididae and “other” invertebrates) at 71 paired points on 2 study sites (Site 1=4 broods, Site 11 = 12 broods). Both Acrididae and other invertebrate biomasses were greater at brood areas than non-use areas on both study sites, suggesting this food source likely had a greater influence on brood habitat use than vegetation type. Vegetation structure described brood-use areas better than vegetation type because brood-use areas had greater visual obstruction readings (VORs) than non-use areas regardless of dominant cover type. We also examined the predictive relationship between vegetation type and invertebrate biomass. Sand sagebrush density was the best linear predictor of Acrididae biomass, with lower densities having the greatest Acrididae biomass. We propose experiments to determine best management practices that produce abundant invertebrate biomasses for lesser prairie-chicken brood habitat, using our study as a baseline.

It is critical to understand how radiotransmitters and their attachment techniques impact marked individuals. Many studies of transmitter effects assess only overt, deleterious effects. However, physiological effects caused by attachment techniques might compromise the integrity of resulting information. Our objectives, therefore, were to assess the efficacy of subcutaneous implants and determine the physiological effects on mourning doves (Zenaida macroura) using heterophil: lymphocyte (H:L) ratios, and fecal glucocorticoid measures. We conducted 2 trials with 60 mourning doves; 1 in summer-autumn (trial #1) and 1 in autumn-winter (trial #2). For each trial we assigned 15 male and 15 female doves to either a subcutaneous implant treatment or a control group. During the 2 trials, we observed no differences in body masses, H:L ratios or fecal corticosterone levels between mourning doves with subcutaneous implants and the control group. Given the ultimate use of the information obtained from telemetry projects and cost of the resulting initiatives, expenditures associated with rigorous experimental evaluations can only improve the basis of reliable knowledge used in making resource management decisions

Gates installed to protect bats at caves and mines have appeared to be more harmful than helpful, but few studies have quantitatively measured the direct impact of gates on bats. To assess bats' responses to gates during pre-hibernation swarming behavior, we recorded flight speeds, flight behavior, and vocalizations at 28 sites (16 with and 12 without gates) from Ontario to Tennessee. We recorded data at unobstructed entrances and passages, at sites with metal gates already in place, and at sites with newly erected mock wooden gates in place. Bats always circled and retreated more often and passed directly through less often at gates (most at mock gates). Higher bat activity and smaller gate size corresponded with more fly-retreat and circling behavior. Echolocation, communicative calls, and flight speed did not differ consistently as a function of gate presence or absence. Bat flight behavior did not differ based on spacing of vertical gate supports, number of entrances, or gate position (entrance or passage), although bats generally circled more and passed directly through less often in passages. To minimize impacts on bats, gates should 1) be erected in large areas, 2) have a bat chute or open top, 3) be placed at entrances (unless predation is a problem), 4) be placed on flat ground (not on an incline), and 5) be erected gradually over a period of several weeks or months when feasible.

Given the importance of roost sites to bats, monitoring roost use is an important tool for assessing the local status of some species. We surveyed bridges for day-roosting bats in the Kisatchie National Forest of Louisiana to assess how temporal patterns of bridge use and disturbance from surveyors might affect survey results. We found no support for the hypothesis that surveys of day-roosts affected bat use of bridges. The 3 most common species roosting under bridges, Rafinesque's big-eared bats (Corynorhinus rafinesquii), eastern pipistrelles (Pipistrellus subflavus), and big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus), exhibited strikingly different patterns of seasonal use. Because of seasonal variation in bridge use, a monitoring program would need to involve a minimum of a summer and a winter survey to document all common species that use bridges. Surveys during the day detected many more bats than surveys conducted at night. Although individuals tended to return to the same roosts over long periods of time, tagged bats often were absent during intervening surveys. Because individuals used multiple roosts, at least 3 surveys within a season wil l be necessary if an objective is to determine which specific bridges are used as roosts by locally abundant species.

Over the past 2 decades, we have begun to accumulate a basic understanding of the roosting and foraging ecology of temperate insectivorous bats in forests. As our understanding improves, it is not surprising there should be attempts at synthesizing our knowledge to prioritize future research directions (e.g., Hayes 2003-,-->Miller et al. 2003). -->Miller et al. (2003) reviewed results of 56 papers (1980–2001) and concluded that current data were unreliable because of small sample sizes, the short-term nature of studies, pseudoreplication, inferences beyond the scale of data collected, study design, and limitations of bat detectors and statistical analyses. Our concern is that this type of narrative synthesis that highlights limitations ignores any quantitative patterns that may exist. In this study we assess whether general patterns in North American bat use of roost trees and stand characteristics are robust enough to distill from the published literature. We used a series of meta-analyses on the same set of studies cited by Miller et al. (2003) to assess whether limitations of the current data warrant exclusion of bats from management recommendations. We used a second series of meta-analyses incorporating more recent data to determine the best current synthesis of knowledge on bat use of forests for roosting. In a third and fourth series of meta-analyses, we separated studies done on bats roosting in cavities versus roosting in foliage. In general, we found that, relative to other trees in the forest, the roost trees of bats were tall with large DBH in stands with open canopy and high snag density. In contrast, roost trees of bats did not differ from random trees with respect to live-tree density. The main differences we detected between foliage and cavity-roosting bats were in percent canopy cover and distance to water. The roost trees of cavity-roosting species had more open canopies and were closer to water than random trees. Our results clearly show that significant patterns can be detected from the literature when data sets are combined using a meta-analytic approach.

The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) developed guidelines for the composition and role of endangered species recovery implementation teams, but few teams have been established and their success has not been evaluated. Using the recovery program of the red wolf (Canis rufus) as a model, we describe the genesis, function, and success of the Red Wolf Recovery Implementation Team (RWRIT) in helping guide the establishment of a viable red wolf population in eastern North Carolina. In operation since 1999, the RWRIT meets bi-annually to review USFWS progress and provide recommendations aimed at maximizing success of species recovery. The team is comprised of 8 research scientists from disciplines including population genetics, canid ecology, population ecology, veterinary medicine, and captive management. Representation from each of these disciplines is deemed necessary for proper evaluation of recovery progress and assessment of future needs. Meeting attendance by the USFWS field management team ensures both proper reporting of past progress and future implementation of management recommendations. Over time, RWRIT members have assumed specific assignments or data analyses, further contributing to the recovery effort. Through the combined efforts of the USFWS field team and the RWRIT, the threat of introgression of coyote (Canis latrans) genes into the red wolf population has been substantially curtailed within the recovery area, and red wolf numbers and range have increased. The RWRIT serves as an example of a recovery implementation team that is successfully incorporating the principles of adaptive management and whose template could be adapted to other endangered species.

Capture of neonatal white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) often is hampered by inherent difficulties in locating study animals. A variety of techniques have been described for location and capture of fawns, including foot searches, female behavioral cues, spotlighting, and vaginal transmitter implants. However, each technique has certain limitations imposed by such factors as habitat structure or logistical difficulties. We describe a new technique for locating deer fawns in which thermal imaging technology was employed. Only 3.3 person-hours were required per fawn located and 9.4 person-hours required per fawn captured. We suggest that this technique is equally or more efficient than other reported capture techniques for neonatal white-tailed deer.

Wildlife timers are an inexpensive alternative to radiotelemetry and camera trapping for assessing activity patterns of vertebrates. We tested the validity of using time-of-capture as an index of species activity periods by comparing wildlife-timer activity data with a concurrent radiotelemetry study of leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis) in Thailand. The wildlife timers yielded valid temporal data for a variety of captured vertebrates, although they were prone to mechanical failure in a moist, tropical environment. We recommend sheltering timers from direct rainfall and using silicone sealant to increase timer durability.

The cause of death for raptors poisoned at illegal carbofuran-laced predator baits is often not confirmed because the carcass matrices that are conventionally analyzed are not available due to decomposition and scavenging. However, many such carcasses retain intact feet that may have come into contact with carbofuran. Eastern screech owls (Otus asio) were exposed to carbofuran via simulated predator baits. Detection of carbofuran from owl feet weathered for 28 days demonstrated the temporal reliability of using feet during a forensic investigation. Raptor carcasses previously not submitted for residue analysis because of a lack of the conventional matrices may now be salvaged for their feet.