Much of Africa comprises arid regions, yet little is known about the ecological interactions between large carnivores in these landscapes. A review of the densities, feeding and foraging ecology, as well as the relations between the large carnivores in the arid Kalahari, illustrates how they have successfully adapted to arid conditions, and highlights some of the differences in these relationships with those in more mesic areas. In the arid Kalahari, the relative densities of the large carnivores are more even, but community structure is different, with the inclusion of the brown hyaena (Hyaena brunnea) and the disappearance of the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). Resource partitioning is more acute and diet flexibility is evident. The relative contribution to animals killed by predation is more equitably shared by the predator community, and high rates of food loss by smaller carnivores to larger ones has not been recorded. There is even an example of a smaller carnivore (brown hyaena) deriving benefits from a larger one (lion, Panthera leo). Arid regions are clearly important areas for large carnivores and more attention should be given to research and conservation of carnivores in arid areas.

Black-backed jackals, Canis mesomelas, and caracals, Caracal caracal, are meso-carnivores impacting the livestock and game farming (wildlife ranching) industries in southern Africa. Many efforts to manage the impact of these predators are unsuccessful and no meaningful, or effective, long-term management programme has been formulated over any large area (spanning more than a single farm or a group of neighbouring farms) throughout their southern African range. This paper reports on the scientific information available on the ecology of black-backed jackals and caracals to evaluate the nature of current knowledge of these species in order to prioritize research for the development of meaningful human—predator conflict management (HPCM) strategies. From a HPCM perspective, it is evident that published field studies on black-backed jackals and caracals in southern Africa are limited in scope, spatially and temporally isolated, and generally old (appearing prior to 2005). Most studies were also mainly conducted in protected areas, with little information from farming areas. Significant ecological questions, relevant to HPCM are highlighted by our study. These questions include studying whether or not black-backed jackal and caracal territoriality persists under rangeland conditions?; Have the two predators ‘learned’ to predate on introduced livestock or wildlife?; Has reproductive behaviour changed under rangeland conditions?; and, Is compensatory breeding observed under rangeland conditions? Answers to these questions will undoubtedly contribute to the formulation of more effective HPCM strategies.

In a number of African countries, the trophy hunting of large felids is an important revenue generator for landholders, governments and in some cases communities. The hunting of large felids is especially profitable but they are sensitive to harvest, as the killing of prime-aged, dominant males can lead to infanticide and lowered reproductive success. In an attempt to limit the negative impacts of trophy hunting on large felids, the scientific community has proposed a number of interventions, including age restrictions on the animals that may be hunted. Such interventions are theoretically complementary to trophy hunting, as hunters typically seek large trophies, and older animals are normally larger than younger ones in large felids. If trophy size results in an increase in trophy price, then interventions that improve average trophy size could confer elevated earnings. This is particularly true if such interventions increased the number of failed hunts such that the same tag can be sold more than once. However, if trophy size is not one of the most important factors determining the desirability of a hunt (which we judge by the price paid for a trophy hunt package), it may be more difficult to implement such schemes. It is therefore important to evaluate potential determinants of trophy hunt package price; and we examine that here for leopards (Panthera pardus) in Africa, at both the country and outfitter level. We show that Tanzania and Botswana have the most expensive package prices while South Africa has the cheapest packages. At the country level, we found no statistical relationships between package price and leopard trophy size (either through advertised website or Safari Club International (SCI) leopard trophy size), country GDP, relative hunt success, or quota size. Contrastingly, the number of charismatic species offered within a package and an index of outfitter reputation (as measured by total SCI trophy records) were positively associated with package price. Interestingly, SCI leopard trophy size was inversely correlated with package price. Our results suggest that hunters do not value leopard trophy size above other factors, which could hinder the implementation of more sustainable, age-based leopard hunting regulations.

Lion (Panthera leo) populations on small reserves (<1000 km²) require more intensive management than those in larger conservation areas. ‘Surplus’ animals are a major management concern, resulting from smaller inter-birth intervals, younger ages of first reproduction and higher survival rates. In the 1990s and early 2000s, this surplus was translocated to newly formed reserves. More recently, the proliferation of new reserves has slowed, often forcing managers to cull surplus animals. The Lion Management Forum has proposed several interventions to reduce the number of surplus lions by mimicking natural processes. These include the use of chemical contraception to increase the age of first reproduction and/or inter-birth intervals to match those found in the Kruger National Park (NP) lions; or ‘tube-tying’ to reduce litter size to match that found in the Serengeti NP. We developed a population simulation model, GrowLS, to evaluate the efficacy of these interventions. GrowLS predicts that alterations to inter-birth intervals or litter size would achieve the largest reduction in surplus animals. Alterations to the age of first reproduction in lionesses had almost no effect. A combined approach would result in an undesirable near-zero population growth. Additional features of GrowLS are its ability to predict population size and the number of breeding lionesses and cubs per year. GrowLS has applications in the management of other species for which the required input parameters are known. GrowLS will serve as an invaluable tool for managers wanting to control population size by manipulating female reproductive rates.

The distribution of the brown hyaena (Hyaena brunnea) in southern Africa overlaps widely with commercial livestock ranching. As a direct result, both perceived and confirmed conflict with farmers occurs and hyaenas are trapped for lethal control or translocation. We studied the outcomes of a conflict-related brown hyaena translocation in Central Namibia involving a subadult female — the first reported GPS-monitored translocation of this species. The animal was moved 63 km from the conflict site and after exploratory movements settled into a new home range incorporating resident conspecifics. The hyaena caused no further conflict and did not return home to its original capture site where livestock depredation ceased. The hyaena was killed in a road accident five months after release. We assess and review our results (and brown hyaena translocations in general) with respect to species ecology, previous translocations as well as monitoring data from resident conspecifics. We provide supporting information that individual hyaenas can be translocated successfully but emphasize that decisions need to be made case-specifically considering the age, sex and social status of the animals. We highlight the importance of brown hyaena sociality when considering translocation as a management tool.

As an apex predator, habitat selection by African lions, Panthera leo, is primarily determined by bottom-up processes; however, increasing anthropogenic pressures may alter these relationships. Using camera traps and track surveys in the Limpopo National Park, Mozambique, we collected detection/non-detection data of lions and their prey and combined these with occurrence data on bushmeat poaching activities and spatial data on agro-pastoralist land use and other landscape features. We used hierarchical modelling within an occupancy framework to determine the relative influences of ecological variables on resource use and non-use by lions at two spatial scales. Habitat use by lions was most strongly influenced by the occurrence of their preferred prey across both spatial scales. However, lions were strongly negatively predicted by bushmeat poaching at the finer spatial scale and generally negatively predicted by agro-pastoralist activities at the coarser scale. Restricting our analysis to the home-range scale would have greatly underestimated the impact of bushmeat poaching on the ecology of lions. The results of our study illustrate the trophic dependency of prey resources to lions and the importance of considering scale when investigating species habitat use. Importantly, our study also demonstrates the limiting influence of bushmeat poaching on the use of habitat by an apex predator.

Habitat loss, persecution and population declines have resulted in the restriction of many large carnivores, including cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), to fenced reserves. These reserves are often small and the likelihood of interference competition between dominant and subordinate predators is increased, while the possibility of spatial avoidance is reduced. Given artificial space limitations, subordinate predators may reduce competitive interactions along niche axes other than habitat type such as time, coined a ‘management-induced niche shift’. We collected data on the activity patterns of male and female cheetahs using continuous follows and satellite GPS collars on two small, fenced reserves in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, one with lions (Panthera leo) and one without lions. There was a significant difference in the activity patterns of male and female cheetahs between the two reserves. In the presence of lions, nocturnal activity of cheetahs was greatly reduced, particularly for females. There was a corresponding increase in crepuscular activity for male cheetahs and diurnal activity for female cheetahs. In the context of other studies, our results suggest that space limitation affects cheetah response to lions and provides the first quazi-experimental evidence of a management-induced niche shift.

Carnivore—livestock conflict has been a driver of human—carnivore conflict since the domestication of ungulates and needs to be addressed to secure the conservation of carnivores. Leopard—livestock conflict is a contentious issue in the Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve (BMR), South Africa. Little is known about the spatial distribution of livestock losses and the associated management responses by farmers. We investigated the vegetation-specific livestock predation by leopards in the BMR, as well as the consequences for livestock management and biodiversity preservation. Leopard killed livestock in 14 of the 22 vegetation types, of which Groot Valley Thicket, Cockscomb Mountain Fynbos and Baviaanskloof Mountain Fynbos were ‘used’ more than expected. Leopard predation was focused on the properties that bordered the reserve, but constituted a relatively small proportion of livestock losses on these properties. Farmers respond to this actual predation and perceived predation by removing livestock from areas bordering the reserve. Given the high levels of herbivory exerted on the vegetation by livestock, the removal of livestock may create plant refugia from herbivory. Thus, we propose that leopard predation may induce human-mediated behavioural effects on livestock which resembles the behavioural responses of herbivores to ‘landscapes of fear’. Therefore, retaining top predators may assist in the conservation of biodiversity within multi-use landscapes by maintaining predator—prey dynamics and associated top-down processes.

The managed metapopulation of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in South Africa consists of a number of subpopulations in geographically isolated reserves. These subpopulations are managed as one metapopulation through direct human intervention. Central to the success of the managed metapopulation is the artificial formation of packs by bonding groups of unrelated male and female wild dogs prior to release. Here, we provide data from both a failed and a successful bonding attempt in the De Beers Venetia Limpopo Nature Reserve and identify two variables which may be used to determine the probability of a successful artificial bonding attempt: distance to partitioning fence and frequency of ‘hoo-calls’. Both variables decreased significantly with time for the successful bonding attempt but not for the unsuccessful one. Based on our observations we suggest that behavioural observations can provide important cues to predict the success of bonding attempts, and that such cues may be used to terminate bonding attempts that are likely to fail, and hence potentially avoid catastrophic outcomes such as killed or injured animals.

As many carnivores occur outside protected areas, they are vulnerable to anthropogenic threats. In South Africa, the largest proportion of the distribution range of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) is outside protected areas along the northern border of the country. Lions (Panthera leo) and spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) have been extirpated from these areas, leaving the depauperate carnivore guild dominated by cheetahs, leopards (Panthera pardus) and brown hyaenas (Hyaena brunnea). To determine how cheetahs use these areas, tracking collars were fitted to nine individuals from September 2003 to July 2009 in the Thabazimbi area, Limpopo, South Africa. Local Convex Hulls (αLoCoH) were used to determine home range sizes and 50 and 95 utilization distributions (UDs) were calculated. Male 95UDs ranged from 121.5 km² to 607 km² while females ranged from 14.7 km² to 703.3 km². Cheetahs utilized several ranches and mean home ranges sizes were larger than mean ranch size and larger than cheetah home ranges recorded in other southern African countries, with the exception of the more arid Namibia. This study provides valuable and relevant data on cheetahs and aids conservation practitioners in mitigating human—cheetah conflict on South African farmland.

The African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) is an endangered species and South Africa has only one remaining viable population. Reintroduction of this species in South Africa is of high conservation priority and knowledge of the species' ecology is crucial for success. In this study, important information was gained regarding the reintroduction process although it ultimately failed. The current conservation plan for wild dogs incorporates such existing knowledge, but results from reintroductions (including failures) are needed to strengthen the strategy and its success. The main purpose of this study was to quantify home range area and habitat selection patterns of a wild dog pack unsuccessfully reintroduced into Mkhuze Game Reserve (MGR). A total of 847 radio-tracking fixes of the pack were collected. The home range area of the pack was estimated to be 383.9 km² (100% minimum convex polygon method) or 377.9 km² (95% fixed-kernel method), each value being larger than the area of the game reserve (360 km²). Significant monthly variations in home range areas of the pack were detected, with a maximum monthly home range area reached at ∼10 months after tracking began (19 months after the pack was reintroduced). Independent of season, the pack consistently selected Acacia nilotica low-closed woodland and consistently avoided riverine forest habitats. Small differences in home range areas of the pack were found between wet and dry seasons. The deaths of some wild dogs were the result of snares, and others may have been due to predation or hunting injuries. We present evidence that factors including game reserve area, availability of preferred habitat and climate may have contributed to the distribution patterns and ultimately the failure to maintain viable numbers during this wild dog reintroduction. The reintroduction of wild dogs to MGR was successful in that the introduced wild dogs bred, owing to the release of a pregnant female, but was considered unsuccessful since none of the dogs from the reintroduced pack survived or remained in MGR for more than two years. However, two wild dogs returned shortly after radio-tracking sessions ceased and were soon joined by another female from an adjacent game reserve.

Leopards (Panthera pardus) are the most widely distributed wild felid in the world, living sympatrically with numerous competitively dominant species in various large carnivore guilds. Leopards generally feed on small to medium-sized ungulates and risk kleptoparasitism from intraguild competitors. One unique, adaptive response to intraguild competition is arboreal caching (‘hoisting’) by leopards. Hoisting behaviour is thought to vary in frequency among individuals, populations, and between sexes. In our study, leopards fed primarily (85% of observed kills) on impala (Aepyceros melampus), which is the most locally abundant potential prey species. Although we did not detect statistical differences in hoisting rates among individuals within each sex, our results confirmed moderate hoisting rates of 35% in an area with medium densities of lions (Panthera leo), spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) and African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus). Sex differences in prey hoisting were related to size, and males as the larger sex, hoisted kills (47.7%, n = 44) more often than overlapping females (27%, n = 62). Female leopards hoisted 25–33% of detected kills irrespective of prey size, season, habitat type, presence of dependent cubs, or location in relation to high competitor density areas (‘competitor hotspots’). Consistent with this, males hoisted kills more often where visibility and, therefore, probability of detection was highest. We conclude that hoisting is likely correlated with energetic costs, seasonally increased detection by competitors, and direct competitor interactions rather than the potential risk of conflicts within generalized areas of high competitor use (‘hotspots’).

Long-term demographic data are central for the evaluation of endangered species recovery plans. We present the demography and dynamics of a managed African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) metapopulation in South Africa, based on life histories of 553 individually known animals collected between 1998 and 2006. This metapopulation, distributed across nine sites (and not including Kruger National Park), was established through reintroductions (n = 9 events) and maintained by periodic augmentation (n = 10 events) and translocation (n = 20 events). In total, 66 founders were used to establish subpopulations and mean founder group size was 9.6 animals. The metapopulation grew from 17 individuals in 1998 to a peak of 202 in 2005. Mean annual population density was 3.3 (S.E. 0.44) wild dogs/100 km², approaching the upper limit of densities reported from unmanaged populations. Mean size of breeding packs was 11.0 (S.E. 0.76), comparable to pack sizes in Kruger National Park (Kruger), the only viable unmanaged population in South Africa. Fecundity was lower than in Kruger — particularly in the older age classes. Pup survival to adulthood was 45% — nearly three times the survival rate for pups in Kruger. Mean annual population growth rate (λ = 1.08, S.E. 0.13) was higher than in unmanaged populations (range 1.000–1.038), with implications for population viability and management.