African lions (Panthera leo) and spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) play key roles in savanna ecosystems. Habitat change, overharvesting and retaliatory killing may threaten the persistence of some populations. Climate may cause further disturbance that accentuate negative effects. Droughts weaken the ability of prey to avoid predators resulting in larger carnivore populations. We thus expected populations of African lions and spotted hyaenas to increase during a drought in Kruger National Park (Kruger). Prey that is easier to hunt during droughts may also influence age and sex structures through impacts on survival and fecundity schedules. We tested these predictions by collating information from previous studies and conducting a field call-up survey in Kruger. A severe drought in Kruger during the summer of 2015/2016 allowed pre- and post-drought comparisons. Before the drought, lion and spotted hyaena numbers increased in response to increasing prey biomass. During the drought, lions maintained their numbers, while spotted hyaena numbers increased further. There were substantially more subadult male lions after than before the drought. The abundant subadult males may induce higher incidences of human–carnivore conflict through more dispersing males in future. Our analyses highlighted immediate and lag effects of carnivores in response to droughts.

Crop foraging by wildlife is a major driver of negative interactions between farmers and wildlife, and yet there are few published examples of effective solutions to deter wildlife from crops. Here we investigate the effectiveness of six different methods to deter primates from crop foraging on commercial farms in South Africa. Model snakes and bioacoustic sounds had no effect on chacma baboons (Papio ursinus). A leopard model and the sound of bees reduced the foraging duration at bait stations of vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) and baboons, respectively. Human sounds appeared to reduce the number of days baboons visited a bait station, but not their foraging duration. Only an electric fence was effective at keeping both baboons and vervets out of a crop field. We encourage modifications to electric fence designs to avoid electrocution of smaller animals and make recommendations for other deterrent methods that require further investigation.

African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) are obligate cooperative breeders and are generally considered mono-oestrus. As such, the birth of two litters within the same year rarely occurs, except for when pups from the initial litter are lost soon after birth. We report on a rare occurrence where a wild dog female (Vee) produced three litters of pups within a 13-month, 2-week period from March 2015 to June 2016, with surviving pups from each litter. Data on breeding females from wild dog packs in the study area (Savé Valley Conservancy, Zimbabwe) were used to identify whether any predictor variables (e.g. environmental or pack dynamics) could have influenced this unusual occurrence. The period over which the high number of litters were born had high prey densities and there was some evidence that it was associated with lower temperatures. High impala (Aepyceros melampus) densities during 2015 was likely to have been advantageous for the packs' hunting behaviours, while lower temperatures have been shown to increase the percentage of the day that is cool enough for wild dogs to hunt. Pack size during this period was higher in the pack that produced multiple litters (by the same female) than for other packs in the study site, which supports existing evidence that larger packs are able to produce more pups. Our results suggest that either 1) under ideal environmental and social conditions African wild dog females are capable of producing multiple litters throughout the year or that 2) this occurrence was an anomaly unique to Vee and her physiology.

Problems of having poor, rural communities value, manage, and benefit from local natural resources has been an ongoing concern in the development literature. The Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) is one attempt to deal with such problems. Our study evaluates the extent to which CAMPFIRE conforms to principles contained in the original CAMPFIRE Guidelines of 1991. These early principles were meant to guide the devolution of proprietorship over wildlife to Rural District Councils (RDCs) to manage wildlife with and on behalf of local communities. In so doing, these early principles are linked to the contemporary governance theory. Our evaluation is based on data collected in Chapoto Ward, Mbire District, in northern Zimbabwe, from January to March 2017 using in-depth interviews with heads of households, key informant interviews and a focus group discussion. These were complemented by document analysis. Our evaluation shows that the principles have not been fully followed because CAMPFIRE was implemented as a strategic compromise between communities and RDCs since devolved community rights were not legally supported at the time. We suggest that policy and legislation changes be made to redesign community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) into a more robust model that enhances the full devolution of rights over wildlife and benefits to promote democratic governance and ensure bottom-up accountability.

Pointing dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) are primarily used to locate cryptic species or evidence thereof and often to establish their abundance. Environmental conditions at the time of search may influence the probability that a dog will detect a target. Here, we aimed to determine the environmental factors that affected the detection rate of a pointing dog detecting gamebirds in their natural environment under known atmospheric conditions, including temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, wind strength and solar radiation. We conducted uncontrolled trials in the Greater uMngeni Vlei Expansion Area of the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands, South Africa, between August 2020 – October 2021, where up to two pointing dogs repeatedly (n = 44) surveyed an environment with an abundance of Red-winged Francolin (Scleroptila levaillantii ). The index of abundance, measured as birds/minute of search, was compared for each survey whilst simultaneously monitoring the environmental conditions. We conducted controlled trials (n = 34) in the same region concurrently by independently casting two pointing dogs downwind of caged Japanese Quail (Coturnix japonica) of a known location to observe the point where each dog's behaviour changed to indicate scent detection. This approach enabled us to measure detection distance whilst simultaneously monitoring environmental conditions. We found that the index of abundance showed no correlation with any of the monitored environmental factors in the uncontrolled trials, most probably because of the low incidence of detection. We further established in controlled trials that detection distance was uncorrelated to ambient temperature and relative humidity but significantly positively correlated with solar radiation and wind strength. An increase of one-knot wind strength resulted in an increase in detection distance by 0.64 m. Our study lays the foundation for developing an area-based survey method, considerate of environmental conditions, to detect cryptic bird species by dogs in conservation projects.

African forests have been negatively affected because of human impacts. The use of forest products is high for lower-income communities. Excessive logging alters the forest patch structure and composition, causing degradation. In addition, increases in bushmeat hunting for sustenance and trade result in increased pressures on forest mammalian species. We investigated forest use by rural communities residing around forest patches in uMthatha, Eastern Cape, and iNgeli and Creighton, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We selected villages to conduct interviews based on their proximity to forest patches sampled during our camera trap surveys (May 2018 – June 2019). We conducted 303 interviews using semi-structured questionnaires and analysed these. A higher proportion of respondents (38%, n = 117) conveyed that the forest extent increased over ten years, mainly because the settlement residents did not use the forest often. Afrocarpus falcatus and Ptaeroxylon obliquum were the preferred native tree species to be logged because of their sturdiness and durability for building structures and fencing. The most hunted mammalian species included the southern bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus ) and common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia ). The most significant reason for residents hunting was for consumption, followed by financial gain. According to respondents, ungulates are the most frequently targeted for consumption in lower-income settlements and are an important source of protein. Some participants in our study expressed that mammalian species' numbers are dwindling because of people overhunting. An emerging trend in our study was the high cultural importance placed on the forest. Forest resources are more likely to be used sustainably if appropriate measures such as capacity building for security guards as well as clear rules and regulations about hunting and plant harvesting are applied. Incorporating socio-economic aspects into ecological management is of benefit for forest conservation.

Understanding changes in the population density of cryptic gamebirds may be useful for land managers when designing or adjusting grassland management regimes to conserve these species and the grasslands. The population density of Red-winged Francolin (Scleroptila levaillantii ) indicates the presence of their preferred grassland habitat. Pointing dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) are often used to locate these and other cryptic gamebirds either for conservation or recreational purposes. We developed a reliable method to count cryptic gamebirds using pointing dogs where the route chosen through a survey site is flexible. Between August 2020 and October 2021, we conducted surveys (n = 21) to determine the density of Red-winged Francolin, a grassland indicator species. These comprised survey portions (n = 77) on four survey sites in the Greater uMngeni Vlei Expansion Area of the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands, South Africa. We used up to two pointing dogs fitted with global positioning system (GPS) devices to survey and record the nominal wind speed. These data were used to calculate the detection distance and establish the search area. The redundancy of search, where a dog or possibly two dogs covered their own tracks, enabled us to evaluate the relative efficiency of detecting Red-winged Francolin. We used this method to establish the population density, search area per covey, and search area per bird in the sourveld grassland region of the four study sites. We calculated the coefficient of variation when estimating the population density whilst searching with one dog (C.V.: 133%) to be materially greater than when surveying with two dogs (C.V.: 54%), demonstrating significantly better precision with the latter. The four study sites' mean birds per covey (3.4 ± 1.44) and search area per covey (14.8 ± 7.5 ha) were consistent with previous studies indicating the grassland status as good. Our study outlines the foundation for a method that citizen scientists comprising field trial participants, pointing dog enthusiasts, and hunters can adopt to establish the abundance of Red-winged Francolin and other cryptic gamebirds with conservation and land management applications.

Rewilding is a conservation strategy used to restore ecosystems to previous states and can involve the reintroduction of large carnivores into areas from where they had been previously extirpated. Whilst rewilding has been important for ecosystem functioning, it can have negative implications for naïve prey that have had no exposure to the presence of large carnivores. Therefore, understanding prey responses to the reintroduction of predators is crucial for management and conservation. We assessed the effects of reintroduced cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) on the vigilance of two species of naïve prey: the steenbok (Raphicerus campestris) and the springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis). We hypothesized that both species would increase their vigilance behaviour post-cheetah reintroduction, but that the steenbok would demonstrate a greater response due to their smaller body size and more solitary nature. To test this, we compared the vigilance of both species before and after the reintroduction of cheetahs. Both species increased vigilance within one year post-cheetah reintroduction, but the steenbok demonstrated a much stronger response with a ˜70% increase in the percentage of time spent vigilant post-cheetah reintroduction. Springbok levels of vigilance were lower (˜50% increase), which we suggest is a function of body-size and/or grouping behaviour. Importantly, we show that naïve prey species are able to exhibit a rapid response to the reintroduction of large carnivores. However, the variation in responses highlights the importance of species-level monitoring after large carnivore reintroductions.

Agricultural intensification can result in extremely fragmented landscapes with typically only small natural areas remaining. The South African macadamia industry is expanding dramatically, with over 5000 ha planted per year. Remaining natural vegetation around macadamia orchards will be key to retain important ecosystem services such as biological pest control of insects provided by, amongst others, insectivorous bats. We evaluated how the activity of bat species on macadamia farms within different land-use mosaics is related to general insect abundance and what role the phenological stages of macadamias play. Recordings of bat echolocation and insect light trap collections were conducted (July 2019 – March 2020) at different edges of land-use types on two macadamia farms in Hazyview, South Africa. Results showed that edge type significantly influenced bat activity and insect abundance with natural vegetation edges recording the highest bat activity (n = 3153) and insect abundance (n = 16 524). River edges (bat n = 1635, insect n = 11 284) presented lower activity and abundance than natural edges but still double that of road edges (bat n = 695, insect n = 3743). Bat activity was also higher during developing-nut and mature phenology stages when pest insects peak. Bats from all foraging guilds were recorded during the study, which points towards a more intact bat assemblage within the study area compared to other macadamia areas in South Africa. Our study highlights the importance of retaining natural vegetation within an agricultural land-use mosaic to maintain biological pest control.

Like many anthropogenic linear structures, fences are ubiquitous across South Africa and increasingly in the rest of Africa. Fences play a key role in conservation and livelihoods, including inter alia demarcating protected areas, safeguarding vulnerable populations of threatened species, and facilitating food security through the management of livestock and mitigating livestock predation from native predators. However, fences also have several deleterious effects, including curtailing historical animal migration routes, denying animals access to seasonally important resources, and providing a physical barrier on which animals can become entangled or electrocuted. Despite these negative effects being commonly known, few African studies have quantified the threat specifically posed by electrified fences, although several studies have highlighted the risks posed by unelectrified fences. This study investigated vertebrate interactions along 108 km of electrified fencing on a private game farm over nearly five years and analysed the effect of several predictive variables on the outcome of interactions with fencing. Overall, 43 vertebrate species were recorded interacting with the fencing on 782 occasions, resulting in 213 fatal interactions. Medium-sized mammals, specifically steenbok (Raphicerus campestris ) and Temminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii ), and large reptiles including rock monitor (Varanus albigularis ) and serrated tent tortoise (Psammobates oculifer ) were particularly prone to fatal interactions. Body size, season and defensive behaviour were the best predictors of a species' tendency for fatal interactions with electrified fencing. This study records several additional species that have not previously been recorded interacting with electrified fencing, and for the first time highlights the potentially large, albeit possibly local, negative effect that electrified fencing has on the rock monitor.

Malicious, commercial or retaliatory poisoning of wildlife is increasing across Africa, including the killing of elephants (Loxodonta africana) to supply the illegal ivory trade. Regional differences exist in the types of poisons used by poachers and in Zimbabwe cyanide has become more commonly employed in recent years – sourced illegally from its commercial use in the gold mining industry. Cyanide is potent, so can be rapidly lethal in small quantities and is also not too difficult or costly to source illegally. It is therefore a relatively low-risk option for any ivory poacher, even individuals not involved with criminal syndicates. On the positive side, however, cyanide has far fewer bio-accumulative and cycling properties in ecosystems than more frequently used poisons like pesticides. Detection and subsequent proof in a court of law, of the illegal use of cyanide in elephant carcasses, can be problematic to distinguish conclusively from other causes of sudden death. Therefore, proactive strategies to combat wildlife poisons are far more successful and the one proposed here against cyanide provides a good model. It encourages the establishment of strong intelligence networks to enable the arrest of poachers in possession of poisons before they are deployed in the field, and effective application of laws which now facilitate convictions for poaching. A key element in prosecution under recently revised Zimbabwean laws is proving that illegal possession of cyanide in the relevant circumstances includes the intent to use it for ivory poaching. Zimbabwe's legal experience in this respect could prove especially valuable to other countries facing similar threats of poison being used illegally to kill any wildlife species.