This paper provides an overview of historical natural history interest in the Maputaland region of South Africa, as context for an account of the history of research in the Ndumo Game Reserve to c. 1988. It draws on archival sources and printed publications from the pre-digital era, which are often unexplored by contemporary researchers, and includes arguments in favour of their preservation and digitization. Aspects of the history of the region relevant to research in the game reserve, which have impacted on the game reserve, are provided. These include veterinary and medical research and interventions, notably concerning tsetse flies and nagana, and malaria and arthropod-borne disease research in the reserve. Alternative visions for the region, including the building of the Pongolapoort Dam and associated irrigation schemes intended to establish commercial agriculture, are noted, with consideration of their social and ecological impacts. Early natural history explorations and conservation initiatives are discussed, as well as the period of management under the Natal Parks Board (1947–88). Key findings of the landmark publication Studies on the ecology of Maputaland are reviewed. Although some human dimensions are included, the emphasis is on the natural sciences, with social science and humanities research noted in passing. The paper concludes with reflections on the utility of these materials for current and future research at Ndumo Game Reserve

In celebration of Ndumo Game Reserve's centenary year, this short tribute paper aims to analyse the scientific contributions made by researchers working in the reserve across different disciplines to create a useful reference for those concerned with or interested in the reserve and the research undertaken. This is achieved by means of a bibliometric review supported by a literature review focused on publications from 1988 to 2023. The results highlight the reserve's importance as a backdrop to numerous scientific and academic endeavours, yielding more than 70 publications across eight disciplines in this time.

This paper provides a thematic summary of local historical anthropogenic impacts and interventions which have impacted on Ndumo Game Reserve. It also examines some key biophysical episodes and events. Natural scientists using long-term data collected in the reserve would do well to be aware of both kinds of impacts when drawing conclusions about its ecology and biota. The paper synthesises available evidence from the official records contained in the archive of the Natal Parks Board (NPB), in the period of its control of the reserve (1947–1988). These have been little consulted by researchers and conservation managers to date. The paper is organized into sections relating to general management; reserve residents and their livestock, and tourists; weather and water; fauna, including game counts and culling; flora, including veld burning, alien invasive plants and veld assessments. A brief section notes key developments post-NPB control: rhino poaching, illegal occupation and rerouting of the Usuthu River. The paper does not review the wider literature touching on the topics covered. It is not an analysis or critique of management. It shares the depth of archival material available, and reminds researchers to think holistically about the range of drivers of ecological change impacting on their research subjects and landscapes in the socioecological context of managed protected areas.

The mapping of the vegetation of a protected area forms the basis for the understanding of the ecological functions within the landscape. Ndumo Game Reserve falls within one of the world's biodiversity hotspots, and as such presents its diversity across the taxa. The floral assemblages found in Ndumo Game Reserve reflect this diversity from which the abundance and variety of fauna are derived. The most recent vegetation classification and mapping thereof was completed in 2015. However, despite its age as a formal proclaimed protected area, limited vegetation surveys have been undertaken in Ndumo, indicating the challenge of attracting researchers to this field. Several knowledge gaps exist in the understanding of Ndumo's vegetation, notably related to impacts of woody plant encroachment, the ecology of invasive indigenous plant species and overall changes in vegetation structure and composition over time due to environmental factors and management interventions. The first step in rectifying this is for universities and other tertiary institutions to prioritize botanically trained students. Although having students able to undertake floristic surveys, it is more management applicable to have students delve into the drivers of these vegetation changes to understand the ecological implications of these changes. Interpreting these changes and the keys to reversal of these changes within episodic environmental events requires strong botanical training within environmental parameters.

The state of scientific research on the non-acarine arachnids of the Ndumo Game Reserve is presented and its status as a biodiversity hotspot is supported by the exceptionally rich diversity of spiders (573 spp.), pseudoscorpions (11 spp.), scorpions (8 spp.), harvestmen (6 spp.), solifuges (2 spp.) and whip spiders (1 sp.), totalling 601 spp. Aside from baseline biodiversity research, biological research on spiders has focused on microhabitat preferences, reproductive biology and competition in web-building spiders; dietary breath, spatiotemporal distribution and predatory behaviour of myrmecophagous, araneophagous and termitophagous spiders; mimicry in myrmecomorphic spiders; and the provision of information on the microhabitat preferences of a broad range of species. Ecological studies have investigated bark-, ground- and canopy-dwelling assemblages, while karyological and taxonomic studies have covered a broad range of spider, harvestmen and pseudoscorpion taxa. Future research should build on this foundation by continuing biological research on the broad range of species available, generating more information on assemblage differences between biotopes and over longer temporal scales, and utilizing spiders and potentially other arachnids as bioindicators of ecological change.

The exceptional biodiversity of the Ndumo area and Maputaland in general, with its tropical biota, is reflected in the high diversity of culicine mosquitoes occurring in the area and, along with their vectors, a high diversity of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses). Research interest in the area was driven by the need to identify risks associated with the occurrence of arboviruses potentially affecting human and livestock health in the area, as well as the risk of introduction of arboviruses from elsewhere. We give an overview of the mosquito and arbovirus-related research that has taken place at Ndumo and elsewhere along the lower Phongolo River floodplain since the first expedition in 1955. Intensive work was done on mosquitoes and arboviruses for about 15 years, after which a period of 45 years saw only one focused mosquito study (1989–1993). More recently, interest was inspired once again by the threat of emerging and re-emerging arboviruses and we have been studying culicine mosquitoes and their associated viruses in the Ndumo area since 2016. We describe our recent findings with respect to occurrence and abundance of culicine mosquito species, compare them to historical findings, discuss possible reasons for apparent changes observed, and propose priorities for future research in the area.

Dams are essential in securing adequate water supply to human populations but at the expense of significant environmental impacts. Understanding the ecological consequences of dams is crucial for sustainable water management. Freshwater ecosystems already overexploited for various human activities, such as damming, are particularly vulnerable to climate change and drought events. This study assessed historical fish population data from the Phongolo River floodplain (PRF) and the only protected area of the region, Ndumo Game Reserve (NGR), in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, to determine whether there have been any shifts in the fish communities since the construction of the Pongolapoort Dam in the 1970s as well as the occurrence of recent droughts. A total of 46 fish species from 12 different families have been documented in the PRF since the 1970s. The number of species and families have varied over time, with the highest records occurring during periods of high flow (42 species) and the lowest records during periods of extreme droughts (30 species). Nonetheless, the fish diversity has remained high, with 37 species recorded in the most recent surveys of 2019, highlighting the resilience of this ecosystem and its conservation value. However, fish abundance in the river and its associated floodplains is low, likely due to overexploitation by local communities and threats from flood releases, poor water quality, and water abstraction outside NGR. Additionally, the invasive carp, Cyprinus carpio, has also been recorded in this ecosystem since the 1990s, potentially disrupting native biodiversity through destructive feeding habits and introduction of invasive parasites. Ndumo Game Reserve and its floodplain habitats act as import refugia for fish, preserving the biodiversity of the PRF and protecting them from external anthropogenic influences. Continued conservation and appropriate management of this small game reserve is crucial to maintain the ecological integrity of this ecosystem.

In the context of most game reserves, the establishment of the Ndumo Game Reserve (NGR) was likely aimed at preserving larger, charismatic wildlife species. In its 100-year existence however, this reserve has gained popularity among wildlife researchers and enthusiasts in invertebrates and smaller vertebrates, such as spiders, dung beetles, birds, and frogs. Notably, research focussed on frogs at NGR has experienced significant growth during the last decade. Within this 10-year period, numerous research advancements have been made in frog research at NGR, extending its implications and applicability beyond the reserve's boundaries. These leapfrogs in NGR anuran research have established models for comprehensive herpetological conservation strategies, expanded the repertoire of ecological indicators, and contributed to a better understanding of the diversity of South African frogs and the organisms that parasitize them.

This paper provides historical background on human interactions with Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) in the Ndumo region from the 1890s, through to the period of formal conservation in Ndumo Game Reserve from c. 1951. It explains how serious population declines in the 1950s–60s led the Natal Parks, Fish and Game Preservation Board (NPB) to prioritize crocodile research and conservation in this reserve. The work of Tony (A.C.) Pooley from 1962 to 1974 is discussed, a foundational period for crocodile research and conservation in South Africa, in which Ndumo became renowned for crocodile natural history research and conservation at its Experimental Crocodile Restocking Station. Research (on wild and captive crocodiles), and conservation management, were intertwined throughout this period. Pooley's outreach work and discoveries relating to maternal care of crocodiles shifted public narratives to more favourable representations of crocodiles. Acknowledging the challenges of historical shifts in methodologies of population estimates, and the patchiness of observation efforts, the paper utilizes available data to offer a history of crocodile populations from c. 1962 to 2023. Post-NPB management and research is included, from 1988 to the present, including periods under KwaZulu Bureau of Natural Resources and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife management. This paper concludes with a brief reflection on the management challenges of the current situation, including habitat destruction within the game reserve, a five-fold population decline since 1993, human–crocodile interactions, and seasonal movements of crocodiles between South Africa and Mozambique.

This reflection chronicles a lineage of impactful research on the common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) in Ndumo Game Reserve, South Africa, as conducted by Scotcher, Hancock, and Fritsch. Scotcher's foundational work established a nuanced understanding of hippo dietary patterns and their interaction with seasonal plant communities. Hancock built upon this by examining hippo grazing ecology and population dynamics, providing critical insights into their ecological impact. Recently, Fritsch has extended this legacy using UAVs for comprehensive population monitoring, revealing significant spatiotemporal distribution patterns and pod structures in response to environmental flows and drought conditions. Collectively, their studies have underscored the hippo's status as a keystone species and ecosystem engineer within Ndumo Game Reserve's biodiverse seasonal floodplain system. The sequential research reflects an evolving methodology and a deepening comprehension of the hippo's ecological role, emphasizing the necessity for integrated conservation strategies that consider both biological and socio-economic factors. It is hoped that this body of work illuminates the complexities of contemporary hippo conservation and research and contributes to the broader narrative of conservation and management Ndumo Game Reserve, an area of both national and international ecological significance.

The Ndumo Community Project has been an ongoing project for over two decades. It started as part of the Tshwane University of Technology's mission and vision to embrace community engagement in 1998. Ndumo is a poverty-stricken community situated in the southern part of Maputaland, KwaZulu-Natal. This area falls under the uMkhanyakude District Municipality and was known as the ‘forgotten community’. People residing in Ndumo live well below the breadline and have limited access to education and employment. The socio-economic challenges that face the Ndumo village have a direct impact on the adjacent protected area, Ndumo Game Reserve, and the surrounding community. Socio-economic factors led to environmental degradation, i.e. deforestation, poaching and pollution of the local rivers and waste management became an issue due to a lack of services. The aim of this initiative is to help people of all ages to discover the true value of Ndumo’s unique biodiversity and their place within it through an environmental education programme. Through this unique intervention, the programme has nurtured future conservation champions to become curious, passionate and empowered to make decisions and to act to improve the environment. Since the start of the Ndumo Community Project in 1998, various research contributions were made, including studies on biodiversity, ecotourism, environmental education and psycho-sociology. Partnerships were established with governmental as well as non-governmental organizations, academic institutions and private organizations. It all culminated in deeper cultural understanding and empowerment through participation in research and community projects. Trust was established, the community engaged in projects and it seemed that the environmental education programmes were effective in creating and improving awareness of issues in the Ndumo community.

Due to increasing anthropogenic pressures, the future for many protected areas is uncertain. This paper aims to provide stakeholder perspectives on the future of Ndumo Game Reserve (NGR), one of the oldest and most iconic protected areas in South Africa. The reserve was formally proclaimed in 1924 and has a long and proud history of conserving biodiversity of international significance. However, over the past two decades, land invasions and the extirpation of endangered species, such as rhino, raise serious concerns for the future of the reserve. A futures thinking methodology was applied to analyse different stakeholder perspectives against four main future conservation orientations namely: traditional conservation, new conservation, critical social science and market biocentrism. Interviews were conducted with past and present park personnel and surrounding community leaders. The interview results support a consensus view that the past reflects what is understood as traditional conservation, which is a bygone era in the history of NGR. The current reality supports a move towards new conservation where protected areas are expected to ensure sufficient benefit flows to meet current and future socio-economic expectations. This orientation is characterized by adopting an instrumental value for protected areas, relying on protected area monetization and access to resources. The perceived probable and most feared future scenarios also align with continued versions of new conservation and critical social science. The idealized future supports market-based ecocentrism.