Phlebotomus chabaudi Croset, Abonnenc & Rioux, 1970 and Phlebotomus riouxi Depaquit, Killick-Kendrick & Léger, 1998 (Diptera: Psychodidae) are closely related species of phlebotomine sand flies, the females of which are suspected of transmitting Leishmania killicki Rioux, Lanotte, and Pratlong 1986 in Tunisia. Although males of these species are distinguishable by the number and size of setae on the basal lobe of the coxite, morphologically differential characters between the females are blurred. A molecular study, based on 40 Algerian and Tunisian specimens, was conducted to distinguish females of these two species. Alignment of the cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) sequences and their analysis by using neighbor-joining and maximum likelihood showed the separation of P. chabaudi and P. riouxi, irrespective of intraspecific variability. Both COI and cytochrome b have been tested as molecular identification tools. Single strand conformation polymorphism analysis did not distinguish these two species, whereas restriction fragment length polymorphism can be applied to identify P. chabaudi and P. riouxi for surveillance purposes.

The adult of a new genus and new species of Muscidae, Callainireinwardtia woodi sp. nov, gen. nov., is described from Costa Rica. This new genus is placed in the tribe Reinwardtiini and can be distinguished from other members of the group as well as other New World Muscidae by the presence of a striking blue to blue-green metallic color combined with a bare anepimeron, setulose metepisternum, a plumose arista, and wings without clouds or spots. Conflicting data on the phylogenetic position of the reinwardtiine genera is summarized and potential avenues for future research are suggested.

Similar nest-weaving habits and sociality characterize all the species belonging to the recently reinstated spider mite genus Stigmaeopsis. Molecular phylogenetic analysis using 28S rDNA shows that Stigmaeopsis forms a distinct clade and that there is another unrecognized clade involving Schizotetranychus species with comparable nest-weaving habits distributing in tropical regions. Furthermore, the phylogenic hypothesis suggests that Stigmaeopsis miscanthi (Saito) inhabiting Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. shared a common ancestor with Stigmaeopsis longus (Saito) inhabiting Sasa senanensis (Franch. et Sav.), both mite species having very similar social systems. We confirmed reproductive isolation between them and tested the suitability of the two plant species as hosts for these two mite species. The result that S. miscanthi immatures could survive on Sasa bamboo for a long period, but S. longus immatures could not survive on Miscanthus grass suggested that the former has evolved from a common ancestor living on Sasa bamboo. This is also supported by a third piece of indirect evidence obtained from observing mite responses to the plant-originated chemical cues involving feces used for waste management in these species. Therefore, we conclude that the host plant shift of S. miscanthi from Sasa bamboo to M. sinensis played a key role in speciation.

In preparation for revisionary studies of western U.S. Gryllus field crickets, some eastern U.S. names for species with supposed transcontinental distributions must be resolved. One such species, Gryllus assimilis (F.), as currently characterized, occurs in the West Indies, Brazil, Central America, and Mexico, and in five of the southernmost U.S. states. Our studies of calling songs and morphology indicate that at least three species exist among these populations. The type locality of G. assimilis is Jamaica, but the type specimen is lost and two similar species of Gryllus occur there. One of these species occurs widely outside of Jamaica, and we assign it to G. assimilis and designate a neotype. The other occurs only in Jamaica and is assigned to Gryllus jamaicensis T. J. Walker n. sp. Nearly all populations formerly known as G. assimilis from southern California, southern Arizona, southern Nevada, and Mexico west of the continental divide are assigned to Gryllus multipulsator Weissman n. sp. Populations located elsewhere (with one exception) are deemed conspecific with Jamaican G. assimilis, although G. assimilis from islands east and south of Hispaniola have calling songs with dominant frequencies higher than is characteristic of the species elsewhere. Studies of mitochondrial DNA of assimilis-type Gryllus from widespread localities are compatible with the above species classification. Hybridization trials between G. assimilis and G. multipulsator demonstrated high interfertility. Gryllus contingent F. Walker and Gryllus mundus F. Walker are removed from synonymy with G. assimilis.

The armored scale insects Chionaspis pinifoliae (Fitch) and Chionaspis heterophyllae Cooley (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) overlap broadly in host range and geographic distribution and are so similar in morphology that they can be distinguished only by a subtle morphological character of the adult females: the form of the median pygidial lobes. However, this character is quite variable for both species. We used allozyme electrophoresis and DNA sequencing of a region that included the mitochondrial genes COI and COII to determine whether two species really exist and, if so, whether the morphology of the pygidial lobes is a reliable character to use to discriminate between them. Material for genetic analysis was collected as third instar females from five Illinois populations of each species (as identified by morphology of the pygidial lobes). Chionaspis species were difficult to analyze electrophoretically, but fixed allelic differences were found at three allozyme loci: malic acid dehydrogenase (Mdh), phosphoglucose isomerase (Pgi), and an esterase (Est). The 572-bp (alignment length) mitochondrial region was invariant within species but differed between the species for both base substitutions (p-distance = 0.091) and insertion-deletion differences. Estimated divergence time was at least 3.8 million yr. The consistent absence of heterozygotes at the three allozyme loci and the large mitochondrial sequence difference confirms that the morphology of the pygidial lobes is a reliable and convenient character for identifying C. pinifoliae and C. heterophyllae and supports the hypothesis that they are not only separate, but very old species.

Flea beetles in the genus Altica are herbivorous, urban agricultural pests that are morphologically difficult to distinguish. Host plant associations, therefore, have been used as an important species character in field studies. Indigenous weeds in the Onagraceae, genus Oenothera, are known to serve as developmental hosts for the flea beetle Altica litigata Fall. Although host plant specificity in herbivorous beetles is labile and adult A. litigata have been reported to aggregately feed on plants in the nonindigenous Lythraceae, genus Lagerstroemia, there is no evidence that these ornamental trees serve as developmental hosts. Because adult A. litigata feed on host plants from species in two plant genera, this study was designed to test two hypotheses. The first hypothesis that was tested was whether adult flea beetles collected from primrose and crape myrtle plants across four ecoregions are phenotypically (morphology) and genotypically (genotype) A. litigata. The second hypothesis that was tested was whether two unlinked loci, cytochrome oxidase subunit I and internal transcribed spacer, are phylogenetically concordant for flea beetle species. If so, they could be used to determine the intraspecific geographic history of A. litigata collected from Oenothera and Lagerstroemia species. We discuss how these markers, in conjunction with morphology and host plant feeding behavior, can not only help to validate morphologically difficult taxa but also can illuminate herbivore-plant genetic structure through phylogeny analyses.

Species of the genus Rhamphomyia (Diptera: Empididae) from Israel are reviewed. Rhamphomyia (s. str.) furmani sp. n. (Israel) and Rhamphomyia (s. str.) hermonensis sp. n. (Israel) are described and illustrated. Rhamphomyia (Holoclera) tenuipes Becker, 1907; Rhamphomyia (Holoclera) biserialis Collin, 1960; and Rhamphomyia (Pararhamphomyia) intersita Collin, 1960 are redescribed. Rhamphomyia (s. str.) sulcatella Collin, 1926 and Rhamphomyia (s. str.) karamanensis Barták, Ciftci et Hasbenli, 2007 are reported from Israel for the first time.

Approximately 9,100 species belonging to the staphylinid beetle subfamily Pselaphinae have been described based on adults, but the larvae of only 19 species and 15 genera have been described in sufficient detail for systematic study, and the pupa of only a single species has been described. Larvae of the euplectine tribe Mayetiini (152 species, all in the genus Mayetia) have not been described previously. The larva and pupa of Mayetia pearsei Schuster et al. are described herein based on two larvae, a cast exuvium, and five pupae from soil wash samples containing numerous adults of the species. Larvae are distinguished from other described larvae of pselaphines based on the following combination of characters: eversible frontal vesicle simple, sac-like, with fine, dense terminal papillae; stemmata absent; epicranial stem absent; antenna two segmented, segment two bearing unbranched, elongate, sinuate sensorium; mesothoracic spiracle with large, fusiform peritreme; abdominal spiracles absent; A9 with V-shaped, apical emargination between short, fixed urogomphi. Pupae are similar to those of the European pselaphine Plectophloeus fischeri (Aubé) in having elongate prothoracic setate processes and spinose tubercles covering the antennae. The pupal description may represent the smallest coleopteran pupa described to date. Larvae and pupae of M. pearsei were found during July and August, whereas adults were found July-October in loamy sand in the floodplain of the Meramec River, Crawford County, MO.

The sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), harbors several bacterial symbionts, including the obligate primary symbiont Portiera aleyrodidarum and the facultative secondary symbionts Arsenophonus, Cardinium, Fritschea, Hamiltonella, Rickettsia, and Wolbachia. The roles of these symbionts are yet unknown. In this study, we tested for possible effects of one symbiont, Rickettsia, on some fitness parameters of B. tabaci (biotype B) by comparing whiteflies that carry this symbiont to whiteflies that do not. Preadult development of Rickettsiacarrying whiteflies was faster, but all the other parameters that were measured: longevity, total number of progeny, sex ratio, and nymphal survivorship did not differ significantly. Estimates of the intrinsic growth rate (r) were almost identical for the two groups. Cross-mating between clefts-carrying and Rickettsia-free whiteflies provided no evidence for cytoplasmic incompatibility. Vertical transmission of Rickettsia was found to be nearly complete. Our results do not clearly identify a selective advantage that would explain the high prevalence of Rickettsia in B. tabaci populations, thus, other fitness parameters and horizontal transmission routes are suggested and discussed.

The establishment of exotic coccinellid species may be related to the decline in native coccinellid species within the United States. Coccinellids may interact indirectly by competing for shared resources and directly through intraguild predation. Prior studies have examined pairwise interactions among species and although several coccinellid species typically co-exist within habitats, multi-species interactions have rarely been investigated. To examine how aphid prey levels influence interspecific interactions among a multispecies assemblage, the exotic coccinellids, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) and Coccinella septempunctata (L.) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), and a native coccinellid species, Coleomegilla maculata (DeGeer) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), were paired or placed in groups containing three heterospecific larvae and fed 2.4, 12.0, or 24.0 mg of aphids per larva daily. Larval survival, developmental time, and adult weight of individuals were measured. Greater amounts of prey typically resulted in increased adult weights and shorter developmental times. When Coleomegilla maculata and Coccinella septempunctata were paired, Coleomegilla maculata had higher survival rates at low prey levels and Coccinella septempunctata had higher survival at mid- and high prey levels. When the three species were combined, Coccinella septempunctata and Coleomegilla maculata had similar survival rates (17%) at low prey levels; at mid- and high prey levels, Coccinella septempunctata survival increased (58–88%), but Coleomegilla maculata survival remained similar (17–21%). Survival of H. axyridis was not affected by competitors. Even though intraguild predation occurs among these species, the responses to competitors varied based on prey level, coccinellid species, and the number of interacting larvae.

The invasive European elm bark beetle, Scolytus multistriatus (Marsham), was detected in Massachusetts a century ago, and it now occurs throughout the continental United States and southern Canada. The Asian banded elm bark beetle, Scolytus schevyrewi Semenov, was discovered in the United States in 2003, and now occurs in 28 states and the province of Alberta, Canada. Although the indigenous populations of these two species are allopatric, the invasive populations are now sympatric in North America where they co-colonize elm (Ulmus spp.) trees. A large-scale survey of these two Scolytus species was conducted with baited funnel traps, Plexiglas panel traps, and Ulmus pumila L. trap logs. Sites (four per locality) were monitored around Sacramento, CA; Reno, NV; Ogden, UT; Newcastle, WY; and Fort Collins, CO (2006–2007), and Manhattan, KS, and Columbia, MO (both only in 2007). Trap catches of S. schevrewyi relative to both Scolytus species captured from all three trapping methods at each survey site were 90 and 89% in Colorado, 90 and 83% in Wyoming, 60 and 68% in Utah, 43 and 68% in Nevada, and 11 and 13% in California (all in 2006 and 2007, respectively), and 3.3% in Kansas and 2.7% in Missouri (both only in 2007). Elevated abundances of S. schevyrewi at survey sites in Colorado and Wyoming could be the result of competitive displacement of S. multistriatus by S. schevyrewi, whose occurrence and mechanism require further study. General seasonal trends from all sites indicated peak flight in July and August for S. schevyrewi and two peaks (May-June and July-August) for S. multistriatus. Funnel traps baited with Multilure and 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol were highly attractive to S. multistriatus, and mildly attractive to S. schevyrewi, whereas panel traps caught few beetles. The U. pumila trap logs were a more sensitive monitoring tool for detecting the presence of S. schevyrewi.

Preimaginal development and reproduction of the predatory lacewing Dichochrysa prasina Burmeister (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) when its larvae had access at different nymphal numbers of the aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) were studied under laboratory conditions at 25 ± 1°C and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) h. Preimaginal development decreased from 46.0 to 31.6 d for females and from 41.4 to 31.5 d for males, with an increase in the number of available aphids from five to 110 nymphs of M. persicae per larva of D. prasina. Preimaginal survival ranged from 55.8% at the lowest to 86.0% at the highest aphid numbers. Prey consumption by D. prasina larvae increased with an increase in aphid numbers, with the third instar being the most voracious. Longevity of D. prasina females ranged from 38.2 to 54.5 d, and total egg production ranged from 59.2 to 369.7 eggs per female at the lowest and highest prey numbers tested, respectively. The estimated values for the intrinsic rate of increase (r_m) were affected by prey availability and the highest r_m (0.0838) was recorded at the highest prey number tested. Based on the results of the current study, it is likely that D. prasina can develop and reproduce either at high or low density aphid populations in the field, and effectively suppress them.

Screened potted cactus, Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill., plants containing pairs of adult male and female cactus moths, Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), were placed in a cactus field in St. Marks, FL, to measure oviposition patterns under ambient conditions. Results showed a narrow window for oviposition during third and sixth day of adult female's life. Peak oviposition activity occurred on the third day, whether measured in total fecundity, numbers of eggs per egg stick or numbers of ovipositions. After the third day, not only did oviposition rate decrease but also the quality of eggs produced declined. Percentage of egg hatch decreased and egg incubation increased. Longevity of adult males (6.3 ± 0.79 d) did not differ from that of females (5.2 ± 0.4), although female adults (157.8 ± 4.5 mg) weighed more than males (74.9 ± 1.51). Therefore, from the perspective of mass rearing this moth, the optimal time for collecting eggs is limited to the third day in the life of the adult female.

The cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae L. (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is a key pest of oilseed rape, Brassica napus L., and produces economic damage. Commonly, life table parameters have been used to compare insect fitness on different varieties. Effects of four different varieties of oilseed rape (‘Zarfam’, ‘Licord’, ‘Hyola 401’, and ‘SLM046’) on biological aspects and fecundity life table parameters of B. brassicae were studied under laboratory conditions. There was no significant difference between the length of prereproductive, reproductive, postreproductive periods, and fecundity of aphid developing on different varieties. The maximum length of prereproductive, reproductive, and longevity periods of B. brassicae were observed in the Licord variety. The maximum fecundity of aphid was recorded on Hyola 401. The intrinsic rate of increase was estimated by using Euler-Lotka equation and was compared with those estimated using Wyatt and White's equation. Intrinsic rate of increase of B. brassicae (based on jackknife method) was 0.298, 0.294, 0.311, and 0.289 on Zarfam, Licord, Hyola 401, and SLM046, respectively. Feeding on SLM046 and Licord reduced the reproductive capacity of the cabbage aphid compared with the other varieties studied. However, statistical analysis of Wyatt and White output showed that calculated r_m were higher than that Euler-Lotka equation and there was not significant difference between r_m on different varieties. Aphid population growth 20 d after plant infestation showed no significant difference between numbers of produced aphids, but significant difference in the number of winged aphids.

To elucidate how galling adelgids (Hemiptera: Adelgidae) vary their larval (=galling) periods between species, we compared larval development of Adelges japonicus (Monzen) to that of Adelges pectinatae (Cholodkovsky) on Picea jezoensis (Siebold & Zucc.) Carr. (Pinaceae). Although eggs of the two species hatch when new buds begin to burst in spring, A. japonicus has a much longer larval period (≈3 mo) than A. pectinatae (≈1 mo). Larvae of A. pectinatae developed rapidly in every stadium and completed their growth by mid-June. In contrast, larvae of A. japonicus developed slowly through each stadium and became the last instar between early August and early September. There was no instar with particularly long developmental period. Despite the larval period difference, percentage of each instar period differed little between the two species, indicating that the longer larval period in A. japonicus is not caused by summer diapause in a specific instar. Nitrogen contents in galls of the two species were highest at budburst and declined rapidly until late June. A. japonicus larvae stayed as first instar when nitrogen contents in galls were high. In addition, nitrogen contents in galls were always higher for A. japonicus than for A. pectinatae, suggesting that delayed development in A. japonicus larvae is not a result of nutrient limitation, but is a naturally programmed response to pass the summer in larval stage and wait for autumn to become adults. This study is the first to clearly show that insects reduce their development in each stadium to prolong their larval period in summer.

Flooding exposes terrestrial organisms to severe hypoxia. Among the best- studied insects that are frequently exposed to flooding are tiger beetle (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) larvae. In previous studies with a limited number of species, a correlation was found between habitat and hypoxia tolerance. In the current study, we examined hypoxia tolerance among third instars of six Cicindela species that vary in habitat association; we also tested adult survival of these species. We found that larvae of the different species survived an average of between 60 and 120 h of submersion in severely hypoxic water at 20°C, with larvae that occur in dry sand having somewhat lower survival times. However, among larvae, there was no correlation between survival times and habitat risk of flooding. We found surprisingly high survival times among adult tiger beetles with a range of 10 h to 46 h. Adult Cicindela formosa formosa Say that are associated with dry sand and are active in the spring and fall survived submersion for >40 h, longer than any previously reported adult terrestrial insect exposed to hypoxia at moderate environmental temperatures. The lengthy survival times of adult tiger beetles are likely a result of adaptations to immersion during periods of inactivity. Our study suggests that additional insect species and life stages should be examined for hypoxia tolerance regardless of perceived threat of immersion.

Geographic clines in body size have been described for many species, but relatively few investigations have tested hypotheses for the ontogenetic mechanisms maintaining geographic clines. We formalize and test the predictions for the role of ontogenetic mechanisms (e.g., hatching timing and size, juvenile developmental time, juvenile growth rate) in maintaining a longitudinal cline in adult body size of lubber grasshoppers [Romalea microptera (Beauvois)]. To obtain hatching timing and size, we collected eggs from wild females from several populations along the longitudinal gradient in 2 yr (2006 and 2007) and measured hatchling size and hatch date. To obtain juvenile developmental time and growth rates, we surveyed populations along the longitudinal gradient during 2 yr (2006 and 2007) and estimated developmental time and growth rates. We found the developmental time (hatching to fourth instar) and female growth rates increase from west to east along the cline. Patterns of hatching timing and hatching size were not consistent with the size cline. The size cline becomes evident in the third instar and is magnified in the fourth and fifth instars. Our data suggest that the size cline arises from some combination of clinal variation in developmental time and female growth rates; prolonged development and greater growth rates lead to larger mean size. Equally important, we found no evidence that differences in hatching time or size are ontogenetic causes of this cline. Our hypotheses for ontogenetic mechanisms producing an adult size cline should serve as a template for ecologists seeking to understand the ontogenetic basis of spatial variation in phenotypes.

Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), a vector of huanglongbing (citrus greening disease), exhibits three more or less distinct abdominal colors in the adult stage: gray/brown, blue/green, and orange/yellow. A previous report showed that, relative to blue/green individuals, gray/brown individuals of both sexes have lower body mass, and gray/brown females may have lower reproductive output. In the present investigation, we directly examined the relationships between female and male abdominal color and reproductive output. We also assessed how psyllid body mass was influenced by transfer to fresh plant material and how female and male abdominal color affected behavioral responses of males to crushed females in a petri dish assay. Relative to blue/green females, gray/brown females exhibited lower fecundity over the first 2–5 d after mating, but fecundity did not differ over the remainder of a 21-d observation period. Regardless of abdominal color, females mated with gray/brown males showed an earlier, sharper peak in fecundity, whereas females mated with blue/green males showed a later, more gradual peak in fecundity. Gray/brown males elicited lower egg fertility in their mates, but egg fertility did not vary according to female abdominal color. Males—irrespective of abdominal color—exhibited stronger evidence of attraction to crushed blue/ green females than to crushed gray/brown females. Gray/brown individuals of both sexes showed an increase in body mass 5–6 d after transfer to a new citrus seedling, suggesting that abdominal color (which is closely related to body mass) may be influenced at least in part by plant quality.

Biological control of powdery mildew (PM) plant pathogens may offer a solution to chemical control problems such as resistance, worker safety, and effects on nontarget organisms. Unfortunately, mildew consumption by arthropods is seldom studied and poorly understood. The coccinellid tribe Halyziini is composed entirely of obligate consumers of various PM fungi and is represented in the Western Hemisphere by members of the genus Psyllobora Chevrolat. In western North America Psyllobora vigintimaculata Say feeds on PM in natural and managed systems. Here, we report the insect's biology and phenology through the use of a laboratory colony, rectangular degree-day calculation and field sampling in an urban landscape. The natural presence of this beetle in Davis, CA, has been documented over the course of 2 yr through weekly presence-absence and density sampling of native and exotic plants prone to PM. Sampling data indicates activity from late February through mid-December. The insect was observed feeding on the PM of >25 plant species in 13 different plant families. There is a positive relationship between PM severity and the relative density of insects, suggesting an aggregative numerical response. The potential of P. vigintimaculata for biological control and the possibility of using this insect as an indicator of PM in horticultural systems are both discussed.

Diathoneura tessellata Duda, 1925 (Diptera: Drosophilidae) uniquely and effectively uses the fleshy tepals of Anaxagorea crassipetala (Annonaceae), a small, understory tree of the primary lowland rain forest of Costa Rica, as a larval substrate and pupation site. This study is the first to document 1) the brood substrate for larvae of this species and the 2) use of flowers in the Annonaceae as a drosophilid larval substrate. Oviposition into the tough, immature flower buds is made possible by an enlarged oviscape. This relationship is unique in that these flowers support two sequential cohorts of larvae, one cohort mining the living tepals of immature and mature flowers and the second cohort consuming the fallen, postanthesis tepals. We refer to this phenomenon as sequential florivory/saproflorivory. The first cohort consists of fewer, larger larvae, whereas the second cohort consists of more numerous, smaller larvae. Both cohorts exhibit a female skewed sex ratio.

The hindgut of feeding termites that feed on wood and litter contains a diverse population of bacteria and protists that contribute to the carbon, nitrogen, and energy requirements of the termite. For understanding the ecological balance in the termite gut, detailed knowledge about the composition of the microbial gut flora is imperative, i.e., the numbers and relative proportions of the microbial taxa and the variability in the microbial composition among different termite colonies and living conditions of termites should be described. Therefore, we isolated and enumerated eight bacterial morphotypes from the gut of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki. Five morphotypes (three isolates of lactic acid bacteria, isolates of the family Enterobacteriaceae and isolates belonging to the genus Dysgonomonas) were found frequently in all termite colonies. Three additional morphotypes were found sporadically and were considered to be transient flora. We compared the proportions of the three lactic acid bacteria isolates and the Enterobacteriaceae among three different termite colonies. Furthermore, we investigated the shift in proportions of these four major morphotypes depending on whether bacteria were isolated from freshly collected termites or from termites reared in the laboratory under seminatural conditions (in arenas on wood) or artificial conditions (in petri dishes on filter paper). Differences in the culturable microbial composition were not significant among termite colonies, or between field-collected termites and termites reared under seminatural conditions in the laboratory. However, we found significant shifts in the microbial composition between field-collected termites and termites reared on filter paper.

The biology and life history of Argopistes tsekooni Chen (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a potential biological control agent of Chinese privet, Ligustrum sinense Lour., was studied under laboratory and outdoor conditions in Huangshan City of Anhui Province, China, in 2006. A. tsekooni larvae are leafminers that undergo three instars. The first two instars feed exclusively within the leaf. The third instar feeds within the leaf until larval development is complete and then falls to the ground where it burrows into the soil to pupate. Larval development is completed within a single mine. Adult A. tsekooni is also a foliage feeder, consuming 8.32 ± 0.96 mm² of privet leaf per day. A female lays an average of 27.8 ± 5.4 eggs within 30 d. A. tsekooni overwinters as an adult and had three overlapped generations in Anhui Province, an area similar in climate to Atlanta, GA. Biological attributes of A. tsekooni, such as high damage levels caused by larvae and adults and multiple overlapping generations per year, suggest that this flea beetle is a good candidate for biological control of Chinese privet in the United States.

We tested the hypothesis that the mantid Hierodula patellifera (Serville) sways its body to mimic trembling leaves in the wind as an antipredator strategy. In the field, walking and bodyswaying behavior were observed more frequently when the wind blew harder; mantids began walking and swaying as wind velocity increased. In the laboratory, walking and swaying behavior were observed more frequently under windy than under windless conditions, and mantids walked and swayed more frequently when wind velocity was variable than under constant velocity conditions. The discovery rate of the prey mantids by predators was significantly lower on swaying leaves than on fixed leaves. Our results thus indicate that mantids responded actively to wind, and we suggest that walking and body-swaying behaviors are adaptive in reducing the risk of predation.

Tamarixia radiata (Waterston) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is an effective idiobiont ectoparasitoid of the psyllid Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), vector of the huanglongbing (citrus greening disease) pathogen. We examined the external and functional morphology of the antennal sensilla of adult male and female T. radiata by using scanning and transmission electron microscopy, respectively, to gain insights into the behavioral ecology of this parasitoid. The geniculate antennae of male and female T. radiata were composed of a long scapula-shaped scape with a basal radicula, a barrel-shaped pedicel, and a long flagellum with a basal ring-like annulus. Five morphologically distinct sensilla, including two types of aporous trichoid sensilla (AST-1 and AST-2), one multiporous trichoid sensillum (MST), one multiporous placoid sensillum (MPS), and one aporous basiconic capitate peg sensillum were identified on the antennae of both sexes. The antennal structures of T. radiata were sexually dimorphic. Male antennae consisted of four funicular flagellomeres and possessed a greater number of olfactory MST than female antennae, suggesting their possible function in perception of mate-related volatile cues. Female antennae were characterized by three funicular flagellomeres and a greater number of MPS than male antennae, suggesting their possible function in the perception of host-related volatile cues. The results are discussed in relation to plausible roles of the identified sensilla in mate and host location by this important parasitoid species.

Diadegma semiclausum (Hellén) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) is one of the most important biological control agents of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae). Each immature stage of D. semiclausum was studied by dissecting parasitized hosts in the laboratory at 22 ± 1°C and 70–75% RH. Results show that the egg is hymenopteriform, lacking appendages. The larvae seem to be hypermetamorphic, with four instars. The pupal period has two distinct phases: 1) phase I, larval-like with remarkable groups of urate cells; and 2) phase II, exarate pupal appearance with a pigmentation sequence of eyes, ocelli, mandibles, thorax, abdomen, and antennae. All stages and sequences are illustrated with detailed photomicrographs.

The hemlock woolly adelgid, Adelges tsugae Annand (Hemiptera: Adelgidae), is a major introduced pest of eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carrière. Hemlock woolly adelgid in the United States is anholocyclic and an obligate parthenogen, because no suitable primary host (on which sexual reproduction occurs in Asia) is reported for this adelgid in the United States. Allozyme analyses were conducted to assess the relatedness between three hemlock woolly adelgid populations in the eastern United States (Connecticut, New Jersey, and Virginia) and to compare them with adelgids from the western United States (Washington) and China. Significant hemlock woolly adelgid allozyme variation was found between nonadjacent trees within a site in the eastern United States. There was a small difference between the two northern and the southern populations despite the relative genetic uniformity between the sites across the allozyme loci evaluated. There were low numbers of protein alleles in the eastern populations, whereas the western and Chinese populations had additional alleles not found in the eastern populations. Both heterozygote excesses and deficits were detected as would be expected in populations that are not randomly mating. There were only a few abundant genotypes and they tended to be more homozygous than the rarer genotypes. The hemlock woolly adelgid population from China that is cyclically parthenogenic was more genetically diverse than the other hemlock woolly adelgid populations that are presumed to be obligately parthenogenic. Allozymes provide some useful information about genetic variation in hemlock woolly adelgid but seem to be less suited to assess actual genetic diversity and structure of populations because of the small size of the hemlock woolly adelgid.

We examined the substrate-borne vibrational signals used in communication between the sexes in Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), a vector of huanglongbing (an economically devastating disease of citrus), in an anechoic chamber and an olfactometer. Males and females both primarily produced simple, low-amplitude vibrational signals at multiples of 170-250 Hz, ranging in duration from 140 to 700 ms. The vibrational frequencies of males and females were negatively correlated with mass, but the correlation was statistically significant only for males. Females replied to male calls within an interval of 0.3-1.2 s. Such signals are within the ranges of signals observed for other psyllids. Female-female interactions were occasionally observed. Intervals between male calls were not significantly different whether or not females replied. In an olfactometer, calling rate did not differ between virgin males exposed to odors from virgin females on citrus versus those exposed only to clean air. However, the latent period for initialization of calling was significantly shorter for males exposed to clean air, suggesting that in the absence of olfactory cues psyllids might be more inclined to use acoustic signals to communicate with conspecifics. Moreover, calling rate and latency to initialization of calling were positively and negatively correlated, respectively, with male age, suggesting that males are more likely to call the longer they remain unmated.

Fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae) can only develop inside the fruit (figs) of fig trees (Moraceae; Ficus spp.). Figs are hollow, rounded structures lined on the inside by numerous tiny flowers. To lay their eggs, female fig wasps enter the figs and typically walk around on a platform of stigmas (synstigma) from which they insert their ovipositors through the stigmas and down the styles before reaching the ovules, where they oviposit. Previous studies have described fig wasp oviposition behavior in those Ficus species with a synstigma and have related ovipositor lengths to style lengths accordingly. Here, we show that this oviposition pattern is not universal within Ficus and that variation in fig architecture leads to the modification of oviposition behavior. Figs of the monoecious Asian fig tree F. curtipes and relatives (subsection Conosycea) lack a synstigma, which is replaced by an irregular mass of elongate stigmas. The ovipositor of the pollinator Eupristina sp. is sufficiently long to reach all the ovules. Despite this, and unlike other fig wasps, they do not oviposit via the top of the stigmas, but insert their ovipositors through the stigmal bases. Oviposition behavior in fig wasps is therefore responsive to variation in floral structure within their host figs.

Attraction of virgin female Anastrepha serpentine Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae) to the odor of calling males was demonstrated. This sex pheromone-mediated attraction occurred during the latter half of a 13-h photophase but not during the first half of the day. Two major components of emissions of calling males, 2,5-dimethylpyrazine (DMP) and 3,6-dihydro-2,5-dimethylpyrazine (DHDMP), and trimethylpyrazine (TMP), a minor component, were tested for pheromonal activity. DMP and TMP elicited antennal responses using electroantennogram assays, but no response was observed for DHDMP. DMP and combinations of DMP and TMP were not attractive in laboratory bioassays. Bioassays of DHDMP were complicated by its instability making purification of the compound unfeasible. Bioassays of DHDMP in unpurified form were further complicated by the presence of reaction byproducts and unreacted reagent in crude preparations of the DHDMP. However, statistical analysis indicated that combinations of 100–500 ng of DHDMP in mixtures with DMP as the major component elicited attraction in laboratory bioassays with sexually active female flies. Taking into account all of the data, we could not conclude that any of the chemicals emitted by males are pheromones, but based on female fly responses to mixtures of DHDMP and DMP, this is the most likely scenario.