Species are a fundamental unit for all fields of biology but conceptual and practical limitations have hampered the process of identifying and describing species in many organismal groups. One outcome of these challenges is the accumulation of genetically divergent lineages and morphologically distinctive populations that are ‘known’, but remain of uncertain taxonomic status and evolutionary significance. These lineages are also currently not effectively incorporated into evolutionary studies or conservation planning and management. Here we suggest three ways to address this issue. First, there is a need to develop improved frameworks to systematically capture taxonomically unrecognised lineage diversity. Second, increased utilisation of metadata frameworks will allow better recording and dissemination of biodiversity information. Finally, emerging genomic and analytical techniques will provide powerful new tools to improve our identification and understanding of evolutionary lineages.

The foundation of the Australian Society of Herpetologists in 1964 occurred at a time of change in Australian herpetology, as university-based herpetological studies began to spread, both within and between institutions, and a new generation of museum researchers was employed. The Society’s foundation can be traced to a single lineage of anuran research at the University of Western Australia, which flowered in the 1950s with the stimulus of new techniques and technology introduced to Australia by John Alexander Moore and then spread to the University of Melbourne and Monash University as former students established new research groups. This stimulus coincided with new zoology staff appointments, particularly of New Zealand herpetologists, at the University of Sydney and the Australian National University, all of whom began to support students working on herpetological topics. The spreading of herpetology across institutions and scientific disciplines necessitated increasing communication, provided by the Society through its newsletters and meetings, and the Society has continued to expand over the half a century of its existence, and in turn encouraged the diversification of Australian herpetological research and the training of new generations of herpetological students.

Thermal performance curves are useful for predicting how organisms might respond to environmental change, and are becoming increasingly applicable for ectothermic animals threatened by climate change. Here we present a thermal performance curve for the critically endangered western swamp turtle (Pseudemydura umbrina) based upon measurements of O₂ consumption and CO₂ production obtained by flow-through respirometry at temperatures between 15 and 30°C. Standard metabolic rate was significantly higher at 30°C (0.030 mL g^–1 h^–1 O₂, 0.021 mL g^–1 h^–1 CO₂) than at 20°C (0.007 mL g^–1 h^–1 O₂, 0.006 mL g^–1 h^–1 CO₂) and the 20−30°C Q₁₀ for O₂ and CO₂ were 4.60 and 3.55 respectively. Oxygen consumption rates at 15°C and 25°C were 0.002 (±0.000) and 0.018 (±0.000) mL g^–1 h^–1, with a corresponding Q₁₀ of 9.21. Beyond ∼30°C there was a decline in physiological performance, which was supported by activity patterns reported for P. umbrina in the literature.

Female sea turtles are promiscuous, with clutches of eggs often sired by multiple males and rates of multiple paternity varying greatly within and across species. We investigated levels of multiple paternity in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) from three rookeries in Western Australia by analysing polymorphic species-specific genetic markers. We predicted that the level of multiple paternity would be related to female population size and hence the large rookery at Dirk Hartog Island would have higher rates of multiple paternity than two smaller mainland rookeries at Gnaraloo Bay and Bungelup Beach. Contrary to our prediction, we found highly variable rates of multiple paternity among the rookeries that we sampled, which was unrelated to female population size (25% at Bungelup Beach, 86% at Gnaraloo Bay, and 36% at Dirk Hartog Island). Approximately 45 different males sired 25 clutches and the average number of sires per clutch ranged from 1.2 to 2.1, depending on the rookery sampled. The variance in rates of multiple paternity among rookeries suggests that operational sex ratios are variable in Western Australia. Periodic monitoring would show whether the observed patterns of multiple paternity for these three rookeries are stable over time, and our data provide a baseline for detecting shifts in operational sex ratios.

Effective management decisions about the conservation of threatened species often rely on good information about their biology and life-history traits. Nearly half of all turtle species face extinction in the wild through worldwide rapid declines in species abundance and habitat loss. The vulnerable western sawshelled turtle, Myuchelys bellii, from eastern Australia is one such species under threat and for which fundamental information is lacking. The three known populations of M. bellii in the Murray–Darling Basin from the Namoi, Gwydir and Border Rivers catchments were studied over a period of nearly eight years. From capture–mark–recapture data, we studied M. bellii’s sexual maturity and reproduction, compared age of individuals using growth rates derived from annuli and growth increment data and calculated a population estimate for the Queensland population. For the first time this study has quantified the life-history traits of M. bellii including having delayed age at first breeding, with males taking nearly 10 years to mature and females approaching 20 years (from growth increment data), low reproductive effort (14.3 eggs per adult female; 78% of females breeding in any one year) and high survivorship with a predicted lifespan of over 40 years. Of particular management concern for M. bellii is the long-term conservation of the small isolated Queensland population (<400 individuals). The extensive dataset provides a baseline for future investigations and management actions required to improve the conservation outcomes for this threatened turtle.

The foraging behaviour of the endangered Australian skink (Liopholis slateri) was investigated through detailed observation of a subpopulation of lizards during seven months of sampling. Slater’s skinks primarily exhibited ambush predation, darting from burrow entrances to distances of up to 4 m with a success rate of ∼70%. The direction of darting was often straight ahead and almost always in an 180° arc in front of the burrow entrance. Juveniles foraged more frequently and further from burrows than adults. Ants were the most common prey item taken and juveniles targeted small ants as prey more often than adults and often moved further to capture these prey. The spread of introduced buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) in central Australia in recent decades is a possible contributing factor to the decline of L. slateri. A wide field of view appears to be critical for the success of the sit-and-wait foraging strategy employed by the skinks and additional research is required to determine whether further encroachment of buffel grass around burrow systems will impede visibility and directly affect foraging behaviour of these skinks.

The primary aim of this study was to identify aquatic invertebrate predators of amphibian eggs and tadpoles in an area of South Australia. The presence and abundance of aquatic invertebrates was monitored at four field sites for a period of 5–6 months; this revealed notonectids, freshwater crayfish and odonates to be amongst the most common invertebrate predator types. The ability of these predators to consume eggs and tadpoles of the native Australian frogs Litoria ewingi and Crinia signifera was then investigated. Freshwater crayfish (Cherax destructor) were the most prolific consumers of frog eggs and tadpoles. The notonectid Enithares woodwardi significantly impacted tadpole survivorship for both species while Anisops sp. was less successful at capturing and consuming these tadpoles. Caddisfly nymphs (Lectrides varians and Leptorussa darlingtoni) reduced egg survivorship but not to the same extent as C. destructor. Unlike some predators, which prey upon particular life stages, freshwater crayfish are large, polytrophic omnivores that can act as important predators of both anuran eggs and tadpoles. Given that predation is a key source of mortality in juveniles, identification of likely common predators is useful for understanding the regulation of amphibian populations.

Mating behaviour in lizards has been well studied, with most reports indicating that the male dominates in initiating the mating, characteristically displaying visually to attract partners. This strategy may be less successful in secretive species that remain in small areas around their refuge, infrequently encountering other conspecifics, like the endangered Australian pygmy bluetongue lizard (Tiliqua adelaidensis). Adult lizards of this species spend most of their time in or at the entrance of single-entrance vertical burrows, built by spiders, in patches of native grassland in South Australia. We filmed the behaviour of nine female lizards for 10 days in each month from October 2011 to February 2012. During filming in October, the austral spring, we observed 43 cases of females making moves away from their burrows, and back along the same path, in that month, that we did not observe among males, or among females in any other month. We observed 27 cases of males approaching female burrows, only in October and mostly along the paths previously taken by the females. Males attempted to mate, and were successful on five occasions. We describe the female movements and suggest that their function is to attract male mating partners.

Lord Howe Island (LHI) is a remote oceanic island in the south-west Pacific that is World Heritage listed due to its diverse, and largely endemic, biota. A suite of introduced species have colonised the island, resulting in the widespread population declines of many native species. The delicate skink (Lampropholis delicata De Vis) was accidentally introduced to LHI from mainland eastern Australia, but there has been no detailed investigation of its biology on the island, or its potential impact on the native biota. We conducted a detailed study of the distribution and biology of the delicate skink on LHI over a six-year period (2007–12). The delicate skink was introduced to LHI in the 1980s, and rapidly spread across the island. It presently occurs in all 21 low-elevation vegetation communities on LHI. The delicate skink is diurnal on LHI, and displays seasonal variation in activity with a peak in November–December. The delicate skink exhibits sexual dimorphism with females having larger body and abdomen sizes and males having longer and broader heads, although the degree of genetic admixture may influence morphology on LHI. Females reproduce in spring and summer (September–February), with a positive relationship between body size and clutch size. Clutch size ranges from 1 to 7 (mean 3.4) and communal egg nests (11–200 eggs) are common. Tail loss is common on LHI (55%), but is more frequent in adults and females. We conclude that, based on its distribution and abundance, the delicate skink has the potential to impact the diverse and endemic invertebrate fauna on LHI.

Non-invasive genetic sampling using scats has a well established role in conservation biology, but has rarely been applied to reptiles. Using scats from captive and wild Egernia stokesii (Squamata, Scincidae) we evaluated two storage and six DNA-extraction methods and the reliability of subsequent genotype and sequence data. Accurate genotype and sequence data were obtained from frozen and dried captive lizard scat DNA extracted using a QIAamp^® DNA Stool Mini Kit and a modified Gentra^® Puregene^® method, but success rates were reduced for wild lizard scats. Wild E. stokesii eat more plants than their captive counterparts, possibly resulting in scat DNA extracts containing plant compounds that inhibit PCR-amplifications. Notably, reliable genotypes and sequences were obtained from wild E. stokesii scat DNA extracted using a Qiagen DNeasy^® Plant Mini Kit, a method designed to remove plant inhibitory compounds. Results highlight the opportunity for using scat-derived DNA in lizard studies, particularly for species that deposit scats in piles.

We report the development of 48 anonymous nuclear loci from the Australian skink Tiliqua rugosa using 454 sequencing. These loci amplified across a Western Australian lineage (47 loci), a ‘northern’ lineage (48 loci) and a ‘southern’ lineage (46 loci). We further tested amplification for the related T. adelaidensis and Egernia stokesii where 37 and 34 loci amplified respectively. The loci showed variability within T. rugosa (22 polymorphic loci) and at least 27 loci also exhibited variation among the three species, highlighting the usefulness of these markers for phylogenetic, phylogeographic and population genetic analyses in T. rugosa and related species.