Over the past century, humans have cleared the Earth's forests at an alarming rate and intensity. The majority of global forest cover is categorized as secondary forest, and it is becoming increasingly important to consider secondary forests in addition to old-growth forest in conservation planning for biota. We reviewed the literature to synthesize information on amphibian and reptile communities during secondary forest succession. We summarized literature on mechanisms of community change during forest succession and conducted a meta-analysis to estimate effect sizes for species richness and abundance in human-modified landscapes (agriculture, pasture, and plantation) and old-growth forests compared to regenerating secondary forests. Studies reported strong support for differences in species composition among human-modified landscapes, secondary forest, and old-growth forest as well as species-specific responses to successional forest change. Secondary forest generally had higher species richness and abundance than human-modified landscapes, but lower species richness and abundance than old-growth forests. This result was more pronounced in amphibians than reptiles, and effect size of abundance was more variable than richness among studies. Secondary forests have better conservation value than altered habitats, but they do not necessarily hold the same conservation value for species as old-growth forest.

The Zeiformes (dories) are mid-water or deep (to 1000 m) marine acanthomorph fishes with a global, circumtropical, and circumtemperate distribution. Some species have a near-worldwide distribution, while others appear to be regional endemics, e.g., near New Zealand. Six families, 16 genera, and 33 species are currently recognized as valid. Relationships among them, however, remain unsettled, especially in light of recent proposals concerning the phylogenetic placement of zeiforms within the Paracanthopterygii rather than allied with beryciforms or percomorphs. The present study uses both morphological and molecular characters to investigate zeiform interrelationships given their revised phylogenetic placement and attendant changes to their close outgroups. Results indicate that revised outgroups affected the phylogenetic conclusions, especially those based on morphology. All analyses recovered monophyletic Zeidae, Cyttidae, and Oreosomatidae. Zeniontidae were recovered as polyphyletic, with the clade Capromimus Cyttomimus sister to Oreosomatidae. Based on morphological evidence, Grammicolepididae are paraphyletic. Parazenidae are monophyletic in all results except maximum likelihood based on molecular data. Morphometric analysis revealed a star-like radiation in morphospace with three diverging trends, each trend exemplified by convergences in body form. Overall, our results are suggestive of a rapid diversification among the major lineages of Zeiformes during the Late Cretaceous.

A new species of the eleotrid genus Microphilypus from the Upper Rio Negro basin is described herein. It differs from all congeners in the presence of 5–6 arched rows of melanophores on the abdominal region, posterior to the base of the pelvic fins, followed by six large irregularly oval black blotches, with the tips of the three posteriormost blotches visible in lateral view; a dark teardrop-shaped blotch on the caudal peduncle, extending to the base of the ventral caudal rays; five light brown blotches along the dorsal profile of the body, between the origin of the second dorsal fin and the caudal peduncle; and the poorly developed laterosensory system on the head, with horizontal rows of head papillae b and d absent. A key to the species of Microphilypnus is presented.

Environmental selective pressures, and associated constraints (such as sub-optimal thermal environments), imposed on organisms can drive important changes in energy usage in organisms exposed to the environmental constraints. Gopherus polyphemus, Gopher Tortoises, significantly reduce constitutive immunity during winter dormancy, a pattern that has been observed across ectothermic vertebrates. Herein, we assessed the metabolic consequences of winter acclimation to determine if the previously documented seasonal immune reduction confers measurable energy conservation. We measured oxygen (O₂) consumption, carbon dioxide (CO₂) production, and calculated respiratory quotient in G. polyphemus at two seasonally relevant temperatures (12.5°C and 32.5°C) and two seasonal acclimation states (winter and summer). We found no effect of season on either O₂ consumption or CO₂ production but found that RQ was significantly elevated in animals at the colder temperature (P < 0.001). Additionally, we found very high RQs (>1.0) in cold-acclimated animals during dormancy. High RQs in this species were likely a result of anaerobic digestive gases exiting the gastrointestinal tract, as we documented significant anaerobic carbon dioxide production in freshly collected fecal samples. Respiratory quotients were all below 1.0 and within normal ranges for vertebrates when a standardized mass-specific fecal CO₂ enrichment was removed from total CO₂ production. Oxygen consumption was greatest in animals at the warmer temperature, and the Q₁₀ for O₂ consumption in animals in this study was 2.34. While we failed to document a pattern of reduced temperature-independent metabolism during dormancy, results from this study further demonstrate important physiological modulation between dormancy and activity in this species of conservation concern.

A new species of sisorid catfish in the genus Exostoma is described from the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar. The new species can be distinguished from congeners by the condition of the posterior extremity of the adipose-fin base, the degree of tuberculation in the preorbital area, as well as morphometric data for the nasal barbel length, snout length, interorbital distance, adipose fin-base length, body depth at anus, caudal-peduncle length, and caudal-peduncle depth. The taxonomic status of congeners in the Irrawaddy River drainage is also discussed, and E. chaudhurii is revalidated as a distinct species.

Size at metamorphosis is an important correlate of amphibian fitness. Several, often interrelated factors, such as hydroperiod, competition, and food availability, determine metamorph size. Hydroperiod is a defining characteristic of ponds, but pond drying is not always a deterministic process, and refilling can occur prior to complete drying. We conducted an experiment to test if a recurring four-week partial drying/filling cycle affected amphibian growth and size using a population of overwintering larval Lithobates sphenocephalus (Southern Leopard Frogs). Effects of the drying/filling cycle varied over time on larval mass, but this cycle had no overall effect on other measures of larval or metamorph size. Metamorph size covaried with both survival and larval period length: individuals were larger at metamorphosis when survival was lower and among individuals with longer larval periods. We observed the first reported instance of prolonged larval periods across multiple winters in L. sphenocephalus, wherein some of our larvae exposed to the drying/filling cycle required 18 months to reach metamorphosis. Individuals that overwintered as larvae for a second winter were larger at metamorphosis than those that metamorphosed at the end of the previous summer. Lithobates sphenocephalus maximize metamorphic size rather than optimize metamorphic timing, and metamorph size can also be affected by larval survival.

Carry-over effects, which occur when an animal's early life experience has lasting effects on its later life, may be manifested in an animal's behavior, growth, and fitness, and are often overlooked as contributing factors to such aspects of animal ecology. Metamorphosis is a process that can produce such effects in animals with complex life histories, due to the significant energetic cost and physical changes undergone during this process. We explored the potential impact of tadpole density after metamorphosis in a pond-breeding amphibian, Anaxyrus fowleri. If larval density induces carry-over effects, then there should be a positive correlation in behavior and/or relative growth rate between pre-metamorphic tadpoles and the same animals as post-metamorphic toadlets. We raised tadpoles at six density levels, ranging from 0.08 tadpoles/L to 1.67 tadpoles/L, designed to produce variation in growth rate and toadlet size, and quantified relative activity by monitoring movement per five-second intervals in tadpoles and one-minute intervals in toadlets. Among tadpoles, activity varied with density as a quadratic curve and best predicted growth rate as a negative log_e-linear function. For toadlets, their density as tadpoles did not predict relative growth rate. Alternatively, we found a positive relationship between activity level and toadlet body size and, when considered in terms of density treatments as larvae, found evidence for body size predicting opposite trends in activity between the two life stages. Our results show evidence of density-dependent carry-over effects when comparing relative growth rate, and indirectly when comparing size-dependent activity level between life stages, in this pond-breeding amphibian. Further information is needed to determine if carry-over effects impact individual fitness, which can have implications at the population level.

The Proceratophrys bigibbosa species group comprises four species and is the only group likely to be monophyletic within the genus. I describe the tadpole of P. bigibbosa and its buccopharyngeal morphology. Comparisons among Proceratophrys larvae in the light of a phylogenetic tree suggest that a conical vent tube, tail fin originating in the body/tail junction, large A2 gap, and trapezoid median ridge may represent putative synapomorphies for the P. bigibbosa group.

We report on the discovery of a remarkable defensive specialization in stonefishes that was identified during a phylogenetic study of scorpionfishes and their relatives. This newly described innovation, the lachrymal saber, involves modifications to the circumorbitals, maxilla, adductor mandibulae, and associated tendons. At its core, the lachrymal saber is an elongation of an anterior spine (or spines) on the ventral surface of the lachrymal that stonefishes are capable of rotating from the standard ventral position to a locked lateral position. The locking mechanism minimally includes a bony spur on the inner surface of the lachrymal and a ridged bony protuberance on the anterolateral end of the maxilla. A modified and highly subdivided adductor mandibulae appears to control the movement of the lachrymal saber by rotating the maxilla while it is engaged with the spur on the medial side of the lachrymal. This maxillary rotation results in a subsequent rotation of the lachrymal that we hypothesize reduces predation on stonefishes. This specialization was included in our phylogenetic analysis of scorpaenoid fishes. This study expands upon the previous higher-level taxonomic sampling reported in earlier evolutionary studies of scorpaenoid fishes and, unlike previous analyses, explicitly combines molecular and morphological data with an expanded taxonomic sampling to mitigate the conflict between these competing datasets. The resulting phylogeny based on a combination of 113 morphological and 5,280 molecular characters for 63 species is used to produce a revised taxonomy of flatheads, scorpionfishes, sea robins, and stonefishes. Our results do not support the monophyly of the traditional Scorpaeniformes, Scorpaenoidei, Scorpaenoidea, Platycephaloidea, Bembridae, Scorpaenidae, Sebastidae, Serranidae, Tetrarogidae, or Triglidae. Our monophyletic taxonomy recognizes nine monophyletic families: Bembridae, Congiopodidae, Hoplichthyidae, Neosebastidae, Platycephalidae, Plectrogeniidae, Scorpaenidae, Synanceiidae, and Triglidae. The taxonomic composition of the Congiopodidae, Hoplichthyidae, Neosebastidae, and Platycephalidae are unchanged. The Bembridae is expanded to include the recently described Parabembridae, while Bembradium is moved to the Plectrogeniidae. The Scorpaenidae is expanded to include the traditional Sebastidae and Setarchidae. The Triglidae is expanded to include the Peristediidae. Finally, a revised Synanceiidae, diagnosed by the lachrymal saber, is expanded to include the Apistidae, Aploactinidae, Eschmeyeridae, Gnathanacanthidae, Pataecidae, Perryenidae, and Tetrarogidae. Based on these results, we recommend treating all of these traditional scorpaenoid clades as families in an expanded Scorpaeniformes that includes a restricted Scorpaenoidei that includes all traditional scorpaenoid families except the Congiopodidae. The resulting phylogeny is then used to explore aspects of scorpaenoid evolution.

European anurans are prey for a variety of predators, against which they have evolved a range of defense behaviors. We investigated defensive behaviors of three European anurans: the Common Toad (Bufo bufo), the Common Frog (Rana temporaria), and the Edible Frog (Pelophylax esculentus) during interactions with a predator (hedgehog) and a control stimulus (rabbit). We hypothesized that (H1) due to small capacity to flee quickly from a predator, B. bufo has evolved a more diverse repertoire of behavioral defenses than the ranids, R. temporaria and P. esculentus. We also hypothesized that (H2) B. bufo can minimize the secretion of metabolically costly poison through behavioral control. According to our predictions, the repertoire of defensive behaviors was more complex in B. bufo than in the ranids. Also, the number of threatening behaviors was higher in toads than in both frog species. Fleeing was the most common response employed by all tested anurans. We report a new anti-predator behavior in the Common Toad: head hitting. As B. bufo released the poison only after squeezing of parotoid macroglands by the predator, we conclude that the Common Toad can minimize poison release through behavioral control. Our data suggest that length of hind-legs and, related to this, mode of locomotion (jumping vs. hopping) can affect anti-predator behavior in anurans.

Skeletal deformities among fishes are well documented in the aquaculture industry and husbandry studies. However, these deformities are noticeably less prevalent among wild caught animals, likely due to their deleterious effects on the fitness of affected individuals particularly at earlier life-history stages. Here we use micro-CT imaging to describe, for the first time, spinal abnormalities in a Neotropical electric fish (Apteronotus rostratus). We find that the deformed specimen exhibits scoliosis and kyphosis of pre-caudal vertebrae 11–14 and an additional fusion of a hemal spine into the descending blade of the anterior displaced hemal spine. We also find that the abnormal specimen was able to reach sexual maturity and forage effectively (as evidenced by ripe ovaries and the presence of insect larvae in the digestive tract) despite exhibiting several spinal deformities. We infer that a highly specialized form of gymnotiform locomotion allowed the deformed specimen to reach maturity and avoid predation in the face of these abnormalities.

Habitat fragmentation is one of the leading causes of biodiversity decline and most commonly results from urbanization and construction of transportation infrastructure. Roads are known to negatively impact species, but railways can often cause similar effects. Certain taxa, such as turtles and tortoises, are more vulnerable to railways than others due to limitations in mobility. We studied the impact of rails on the movement and behavior of Gopher Tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus), a threatened, highly terrestrial species likely in frequent contact with railways. First, we used radio-telemetry to determine the frequency of railway crossings and compared this to correlated random walk (CRW) simulations to assess if tortoises were crossing the rails less frequently than is expected by unconstrained movement. Second, we placed tortoises into the railway and measured behavior for one hour to assess crossing ability. Lastly, we tested whether trenches dug underneath the rails could allow safe passage for tortoises. We found that railways impacted the movement of Gopher Tortoises. Gopher Tortoises crossed the railway less often than what would be expected by unhindered movement for five of our ten tortoises tracked. During behavioral trials, 0 of 24 tortoises placed within the railways were capable of escaping from the rails. Using game cameras, we detected tortoises using trenches dug underneath the rails and between the ties 68 times over the course of a single summer. For minimal financial cost, the trenches facilitated tortoise movement across the railway, maintained full rail functionality, and created an escape route for individuals that were trapped between the rails, and thus should be implemented as a mitigation strategy. Given the thousands of km of railways around the world, we recommend future studies focus on the new field of rail ecology.

Morphological analysis of South- and Northwestern Atlantic specimens of Squatina revealed an undescribed species of angel shark occurring on the continental slope of Brazil between latitudes 11° and 22°S. The new species of Squatina is distinguished from western Atlantic congeners by a unique combination of dorsal color pattern, vertebral counts, morphology of lateral dermal folds, dermal denticles, female reproductive tract, clasper, and pectoral fin characters. A preliminary assessment of the taxonomy of angel shark species from the Central and Northwestern Atlantic is also provided.

Introduced populations often exhibit rapid phenotypic changes following colonization of new environments. These changes, which often contribute to the successful establishment and spread of introduced species, may result from evolution or phenotypic plasticity. We studied variation in adult body size across elevational gradients in native (Puerto Rico) and introduced (Hawaii) populations of Coquis (Eleutherodactylus coqui). To explore the possible mechanisms underlying variation in adult body size, we conducted a laboratory common-environment experiment to study the effects of temperature (19°C and 25°C), elevation (<300 m and >700 m), and area (two in Puerto Rico and one in Hawaii) on five size-related life history traits: clutch size, egg size, hatching size, size at 30 days, and growth rate. In the field in both Puerto Rico and Hawaii, body size was positively correlated with elevation, which is negatively correlated with temperature, but the magnitude of the slope was greater in Puerto Rico than in Hawaii. In the laboratory, egg size, hatching size, and body size at 30 days were positively correlated with elevation for populations from Puerto Rico and Hawaii. Egg size, hatching size, and body size at 30 days were negatively correlated with temperature for all populations. Clutch size and growth rate were positively correlated with elevation for populations from Puerto Rico but not for populations from Hawaii. Furthermore, both low and high elevation populations from Hawaii had life history traits more similar to low elevation populations than high elevation populations from Puerto Rico. Temperature effects in the laboratory suggest that plasticity in response to temperature contributes to the variation in adult body size with elevation in both Puerto Rico and Hawaii. However, temperature-induced plasticity cannot explain the difference in slopes between Puerto Rico and Hawaii, because temperature varies across elevations to the same degree in both regions. Variation in growth rate paralleled that for adult body size and, if heritable, provides a possible mechanism for the observed differences in adult body size across elevations between Puerto Rico and Hawaii.

Aspects of the reproductive behavior of Giant Sea Bass, tereolepis gigas, were observed and monitored at Goat Harbor, Santa Catalina Island, California from June 2014 to August 2015. The site was visited daily during the summer months (the known spawning season); aggregations were not present during the rest of the year. Numbers of Giant Sea Bass observed at Goat Harbor ranged from 1 to 19 individuals with an average of 6. Giant Sea Bass produced booming sounds (40–80 Hz), which were often associated with aggressive behavior but may also be associated with courtship. Courtship behavior was observed during the late afternoons and was most prominent around dusk (1900–2100 h). Courtship involved sexually dimorphic, temporary color changes and displays such as circling in pairs and the nudging of the abdominal area of the presumed female by the snout of the presumed male. The courtship behaviors observed were similar to those observed for Giant Sea Bass in captivity. Although spawning was not observed directly, the available evidence suggests that spawning occurs just after dusk. Confirmation of spawning at or near the aggregation site was obtained through DNA barcoding with CO1 primers of eggs sampled from Goat Harbor near dusk. This study provides insights into courtship behavior that can be used to identify potential Giant Sea Bass spawning aggregations in the wild that are crucial for management of the species.

During an expedition to the headwaters of the Rio das Mortes, Mato Grosso, in the Brazilian Shield, a new species of Serrapinnus was found. The new species is distinguished from all congeners by having eight branched dorsal-fin rays, three premaxillary teeth, and a conspicuous dark stripe extending from the eye to the caudal-fin median rays. Among congeners, a similar coloration pattern is present only in S. sterbai, but in that species the stripe usually originates posterior to the eye, on the opercle, and extends to the caudal-fin median rays. In the single locality where the new species was captured, it occurs syntopically with Hyphessobrycon cf. vilmae, another small characid in which a dark midlateral stripe is quite remarkable. Both species were captured together and were observed in situ swimming in mixed shoals. Thus, it is suggested that both species increase their individual chances of survival through the strategy of “protective association” via numeric mimicry.

The ranges of two rare species of deep-water dragonets—the Spotfin Dragonet Foetorepus agassizii (Goode and Bean, 1888) and the Palefin Dragonet Foetorepus goodenbeani Nakabo and Hartel, 1999—overlap on the outer continental shelf of North America in the Mid Atlantic Bight. We studied more than 450 specimens collected between 2009–2015 by the Northeast Fisheries Science Center to photographically document these species, better characterize their geographic and depth distributions, and describe aspects of their reproductive biology. The two species occurred in a small subset of locations within the sampled area (81 of 6,225 stations). Although F. agassizii and F. goodenbeani occur within a similar geographic region, F. agassizii occurs at greater depths, on average 33 m deeper, than F. goodenbeani. Collection locations and depths in spring and fall were similar, suggesting that F. agassizii and F. goodenbeani do not migrate seasonally, perhaps because they occur in habitats with stable year-round temperatures. Macroscopic and histological analyses of reproductive condition indicated both species are spawning capable in spring (March) and fall (September and October). Males collected in these months had mature spermatozoa in testicular tubules, and females had oocytes in many stages, indicative of asynchronous oocyte development and batch spawning. Ovarian weight, however, was greater in specimens collected in fall months, indicating a peak in spawning.