Phylogenetic relationships of the 11 families and 35 genera of deep-sea anglerfishes of the lophiiform suborder Ceratioidei, characterized most strikingly by an extreme sexual dimorphism that extends to all taxa, were analyzed on the basis of 71 morphological characters applicable to metamorphosed females. All characters were treated as unordered and unweighted, and were polarized by outgroup comparison with taxa of the lophiiform suborders Lophioidei, Antennarioidei, Chaunacoidei, and Ogcocephaloidei. The analysis produced five equally parsimonious trees, with a total length of 153, a consistency index of 0.5560, and a retention index of 0.7952. Lack of resolution was totally attributed to a single family, the relatively poorly understood Oneirodidae, containing 16 genera and 65 species, nearly 40% of all recognized ceratioids. Monophyly for the Ceratioidei was confirmed and all ceratioid genera were placed in currently recognized monophyletic families. Sister families Centrophrynidae and Ceratiidae were found to be basal in position relative to all other ceratioids. The Himantolophidae, Diceratiidae, and Melanocetidae diverge next in sequential step-wise fashion, the latter family forming the sister group of all remaining ceratioids. The integrity of the Thaumatichthyidae to include both Lasiognathus and Thaumatichthys was maintained, this family forming the sister group of the Oneirodidae. Contrary to its basal position in most all previously proposed hypotheses, the Caulophrynidae was found to be deeply embedded within the suborder, forming the sister group of a monophyletic assemblage containing the Gigantactinidae, Neoceratiidae, and Linophrynidae. Sister families Gigantactinidae and Neoceratiidae were found to form the sister group of the Linophrynidae. A second analysis, with characters of metamorphosed males and larvae added to the matrix, resulted in a collapse of several of the deeper nodes of the tree (because of incomplete sampling; males are unknown for eight of the 30 ceratioid genera available for analysis, and larvae are unknown for nine), producing 352 equally parsimonious trees with a total length of 202. Mapping modes of reproduction on the resulting trees reaffirmed the hypothesis that sexual parasitism has evolved independently more than once within the suborder and perhaps as many as seven times. Whether facultative parasitism and temporary attachment of males to females are precursors to obligate parasitism, or the former are more derived states of the latter, remains unknown.

The limits and relationships of serranid and percid fishes, in the context of the percomorph radiation, were resolved using 4036 aligned base pairs of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence data for 180 acanthomorph species. Representatives of all major serranid and percid lineages were analyzed along with 91 additional families from six acanthomorph orders and 25 suborders. Percidae was recovered as monophyletic, and the traditional Serranidae was recovered as polyphyletic, forming five clades: Niphon, Acanthistius, Epinephelinae (less Niphon), Anthiinae (less Acanthistius and Zalanthias kelloggi [formerly included in Plectranthias]), Serraninae (including Zalanthias kelloggi). These traditional “percoid” families were separated from all other “percoid” taxa and recovered within a clade composed of the mail-cheeked fishes and their allies. Based on the evidence provided in this molecular study and prior morphological studies, we recommend taxonomic changes to the Perciformes, Percoidei, Trachinoidei, and Serranidae, we resurrect the Epinephelidae and Niphonidae, and we create a new group, the Moronoidei, to reflect our recovered relationships.

A new species of Stenocercus is described from the eastern Andes of Colombia, Departamento Santander. The new species differs from other Stenocercus by the combination of the following characters: head scales strongly keeled and imbricate, parietals, interparietal, and postparietals distinct, canthals two, angulate temporals not projected, nostrils medial to canthus, tail compressed laterally, vertebral crest in adult males prominently projected, ventrals keeled, posthumeral and postfemoral mite pockets distinct, postxiphisternal inscriptional ribs in contact medially. Specimens of the new species have been misidentified as Stenocercus erythrogaster, which occurs allopatrically in the lowlands of northern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela.

Se describe una especie nueva de Stenocercus de la cordillera oriental de Los Andes en Colombia, Departamento Santander. Esta especie se distingue de otras especies de Stenocercus por la combinación de los siguientes caracteres: escamas de la cabeza fuertemente quilladas e imbricadas, parietales, interparietal y postparietales bien definidas, dos cantales, temporales angulares no proyectadas, abertura nasal medial al canthus, cola lateralmente comprimida, cresta vertebral proyectada en machos adultos, ventrales quilladas, bolsillos posthumerales y postfemorales presentes, costillas postxifosternales en contacto medialmente. Los especímenes de la especie nueva habían sido erróneamente identificados como Stenocercus erythrogaster, una especie distribuida alopátricamente en las tierras bajas al norte de Colombia y noroeste de Venezuela.

Hypancistrus contradens, H. debilittera, H. furunculus, and H. lunaorum are described based on specimens from the upper Río Orinoco of southern Venezuela. Hypancistrus furunculus differs from other Hypancistrus based on color pattern: distinct dark oblique stripes ending at posterior insertion of dorsal fin and vertical bands in caudal fin (vs. oblique stripes ending at end of caudal fin in H. zebra and thin, indistinct, light-colored bands and vermiculations on a dark background in H. debilittera) and color pattern dark with white spots in H. contradens, H. inspector, and H. lunaorum. Hypancistrus contradens and H. lunaorum differ from H. inspector by having the dorsal fin reaching the adipose fin when adpressed (vs. not reaching), having spots on the head the same size as the body or spots absent (vs. spots smaller on head) and by usually having 22–23 mid-ventral plates (vs. 24); and from H. debilittera, H. furunculus, and H. zebra by lacking bars, saddles, or stripes on the body and bands in the fins. Hypancistrus lunaorum differs from H. contradens by having white spots on the body smaller than nasal aperture diameter (vs. white spots larger than the nasal aperture diameter).

Se describen como especies nuevas a Hypancistrus contradens, H. debilittera, H. furunculus, e H. lunaorum sobre la base de especímenes provenientes de la cuenca alta del río Orinoco en el sur de Venezuela. Hypancistrus furunculus difiere de todas las demás especies de Hypancistrus por su patrón de coloración: barras oscuras oblicuas en el cuerpo que terminan al nivel del punto posterior de la base de la aleta dorsal y bandas verticales en la aleta caudal (vs. barras oblicuas oscuras terminando en el borde posterior de la aleta caudal en H. zebra y barras delgadas, indistintas y de color claro con manchas iregulares vermiformes sobre un color base oscuro en H. debilittera) y patrón de coloración con puntos blancos en H. contradens, H. inspector, e H. lunaorum. Hypancistrus contradens e H. lunaorum difieren de H. inspector en que la aleta dorsal alcanza la aleta adiposa cuando esta plegada contra el cuerpo (vs. aleta dorsal que no alcanza la adiposa), los puntos de la cabeza son del mismo tamaño de los puntos del cuerpo, o carece de puntos (vs. puntos de la cabeza mas pequeños que los puntos del cuerpo) y en tener usualmente 22–23 placas medioventrales (vs. 24); estas especies difieren de H. debilittera, H. furunculus, e H. zebra en que tienen barras, manchas en forma de silla de montar o franjas en el cuerpo y bandas en las aletas. Hypancistrus lunaorum difiere de H. contradens en que los puntos blancos del cuerpo son más pequeños que el diámetro de la apertura nasal (vs. puntos blancos más grandes que el diámetro de la apertura nasal).

Crotalus catalinensis is a rattleless rattlesnake endemic to Santa Catalina Island, in the Gulf of California, Mexico. It has been hypothesized that the lack of a rattle in this species is a stealth adaptation for hunting birds in vegetation. We provide detailed data on the diet of C. catalinensis from samples obtained during nine trips to the island in 2002–2004. Over two-thirds (70%) of the diet of C. catalinensis was composed of the Santa Catalina Deer Mouse (Peromyscus slevini). The remaining prey were lizards (Dipsosaurus catalinensis, Uta squamata, and Sceloporus lineatulus). There was an ontogenetic shift in diet and higher feeding activity during the dry season. The diet of this species is only a small subset of the diet of its supposed closest relative, C. ruber, probably as a result of limited diversity of prey on the island. The lack of birds in the diet of C. catalinensis argues against the supposed importance of birds as an essential feature for the hypothesis relating the lack of a rattle with a stealth hunting technique for birds in vegetation. However, since P. slevini is partially arboreal, there remains the possibility that the lack of a rattle is an adaptation for stealth hunting for mice in vegetation.

A new gerreid fish species, Gerres mozambiquensis, is described on the basis of a holotype and one paratype from Larde Estuary, southern Nampura, Mozambique. The species is characterized by the following unique combination of characters: relatively deep body (greatest depth 46–47% SL); robust second anal-fin spine (greatest width of second spine/greatest width of third spine  =  1.7–1.8); three supraneural bones configuration (0/0/0 2/); dorsal fin with nine spines and ten rays; lateral-line scales 43 or 44; 4 or 4½ scales between fifth dorsal-fin spine base and lateral line; caudal-fin lobes short, the tips rounded with growth; and six to eight indistinct dark vertical bars (bar width about half pupil diameter) on lateral surface of body. Gerres maldivensis Regan, 1902, formerly considered a junior synonym of G. erythrourus (Bloch, 1791) ( =  G. abbreviatus), is reinstated as a valid Indo-Pacific species. It is characterized by body depth 43% SL, approximately eight faint dark vertical bars on body, lateral-line scales 40, 5½ scales between fifth dorsal-fin spine base and lateral line, 5½ and 9½ scale rows above and below the lateral line, respectively, dorsal surface of head with two converging rows of minute scales surrounded by series of larger scales, two small scales near the premaxillary groove, but no scales on the groove itself, and three supraneural bones (0/0/0 2). This suite of diagnostic characters is not known for any other species of Gerres. Several nominal species of Gerres of uncertain status are also discussed.

From 2001–2005, we collected and individually marked 219 Alsophis portoricensis anegadae from Guana Island, British Virgin Islands, during the months September–October to determine morphometric characters, evaluate incidence of scarring and tail damage, and assess habitat use and activity. Males were longer than females and significantly heavier and heavier per unit length. Sex ratio was almost exactly 1:1 (102 M:104 F). Undamaged tails of males were significantly longer than those of females, but rates of tail damage did not differ by sex. Scarring and tail damage were more abundant posteriorly on the body and tail, and were cumulative, occurring with significantly greater frequency in larger individuals. Most damage was probably attributable to unsuccessful predation attempts by Soldier Crabs (Coenobita clypeatus). We found snakes in all habitats except an open grassy plain. Activity appeared to be bimodal, with a depression during the heat of the day. Although usually diurnal, three snakes were observed active at night. Most snakes were on the ground, but a small number were in water or climbing on vegetation or human-made structures. Most were in full shade and very few in full sun when first observed. Snakes most frequently were sprawled, rarely coiled, and many were first seen while moving.

A multidisciplinary approach including biometric, ecological, and molecular genetic analyses was employed to test species status of the Black Moray Muraena augusti (Kaup, 1856) and the Mediterranean Moray M. helena Linnaeus, 1758. Relevant differences were identified in their habitat, bathymetric range, color pattern, vertebral formula, growth parameters and lifespan, reproduction strategy, size/age at first maturity, and distribution. Intra- and interspecific genetic divergences (based on a region of the rhodopsin gene and the complete cytochrome b gene) also suggest that both moray eels are different species. Mitochondrial and nuclear sequence data place these two species into different clades. Phylogenetic analyses among an additional five species of moray eels occurring in sympatry in the eastern central Atlantic resolved M. helena, M. augusti, and M. melanotis as closely related species in a well supported clade, while M. robusta emerged as a more divergent species within the Gymnothorax clade. Based on these findings, Muraena augusti is a valid species and should be resurrected.

We describe adults, tadpoles, advertisement calls, and provide information on the natural history of a new Amazonian species of Colostethus from Rio Branco, Acre, Brazil. The new species is diagnosed by small size, sexual dimorphism in ventral coloration, absence of median lingual process, white throat in males, testis white in adult males, absence of dorsolateral and ventral stripes, terminal discs of digits swollen, absence of swollen Finger III, fringes and webs absent on fingers, rudimentary interdigital webs between Toes III and IV. The species also differs from other described Colostethus species in tadpole morphology and acoustics. This species is the first Colostethus known to lay its eggs on the lower surface of leaves. Clutches of C. subfolionidificans, new species, are composed of about six to eight white eggs and are attended by the male. The tadpoles develop on the lower surface of leaves until stage 25, when they are carried by the male to complete metamorphosis in pools.

Conditions that affect amphibian larval growth and survival can affect population structure through both larval and adult stages of their life history. We conducted a two-year, mark-recapture study of larval, Coastal Giant Salamanders, Dicamptodon tenebrosus, in 14 small streams in the Oregon Coast Range to assess spatial and temporal variation in growth and apparent survival. We modeled larval survival and growth by season and age class and examined these demographic rates in the presence of road crossing culverts. Cormack-Jolly-Seber models indicated that apparent survival was lower for first-year larvae than second/third-year larvae (13%, SE  =  0.03; 28%, SE  =  0.08) and apparent survival varied by time/season. The >5% difference in the effect of age on survival is potentially biologically significant (effect size  =  −0.10; confidence interval  =  −0.05, −0.16). Effects of culverts on larval survival were inconclusive, while no effects on growth were detected.

Although anuran larvae with generalist feeding morphology have traditionally been treated as lower-level consumers, emerging studies indicate that the larvae of many species are intraguild predators of other anurans. We conducted two experiments to examine priority effects of the Wood Frog (Rana sylvatica) on the Upland Chorus Frog (Pseudacris feriarum). Wood frogs hatch before upland chorus frogs and could potentially function both as intraguild predators and competitors of the latter. In a laboratory experiment, R. sylvatica did not prey on P. feriarum hatchlings that were greater than 1-day old. In a mesocosm experiment in which food level and the density of R. sylvatica hatchlings were manipulated, R. sylvatica engaged in stage-structured intraguild predation on egg masses of P. feriarum. The number of P. feriarum embryos surviving to hatching was inversely related to the initial density of R. sylvatica, but was independent of food level. Growth rates of P. feriarum hatchlings were inversely related to R. sylvatica density, suggesting strong interspecific competition. Collectively, these results illustrate that the density of an intraguild predator may mediate the strength of both stage-specific intraguild predation and interspecific competition. Our findings suggest that food webs in many seasonal pond communities are more complex than previously thought and need to be revised to incorporate intraguild predation by anurans.

Two new species of Eleutherodactylus are described from the Cordillera Occidental in northern Peruvian departments of Ancash and La Libertad. The new species from La Libertad is assigned to the Eleutherodactylus orestes Group and inhabits puna at elevations of 3400–4010 m. The Eleutherodactylus orestes Group is redefined. The second new species is assigned to the Eleutherodactylus conspicillatus Group; it represents the southernmost species of Eleutherodactylus in the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes.

Se describen dos nuevas especies de Eleutherodactylus procedentes de la Cordillera Occidental en los departamentos de Ancash y La Libertad al norte de Perú. La nueva especie de La Libertad se asigna al grupo Eleutherodactylus orestes y habita en puna a elevaciones entre los 3400–4010 m. Se redefinen los caracteres del grupo Eleutherodactylus orestes. La segunda nueva especie se asigna al grupo Eleutherodactylus conspicillatus; esta es la especie de Eleutherodactylus que tiene la distribución más al sur en la Cordillera Occidental de los Andes.

Astyanax bockmanni, a new species of characid, is widespread in streams in the upper Rio Paraná system of central, southeastern, and southern Brazil. Samples of the species were identified by previous authors as A. eigenmanniorum, a species originally described from far southern Brazil. Astyanax bockmanni differs from A. eigenmanniorum and all congeners in the combination of morphometric, meristic, and pigmentary features and details of oral dentition. Uncertainties concerning the generic placement of Astyanax paranahybae are discussed, and it is proposed that the species is a member of a clade within the Characidae that does not include Astyanax.

Astyanax bockmanni, uma nova espécie de caracídeo, é amplamente distribuída em riachos do Alto Rio Paraná, nas regiões centro-oeste, sudeste e sul do Brasil. Amostras dessa espécie foram previamente identificadas por diversos autores como A. eigenmanniorum, uma espécie originalmente descrita do extremo sul do Brasil. Astyanax bockmanni difere de A. eigenmanniorum e demais congêneres por uma combinação de caracteres morfométricos e de pigmentação, além de detalhes da dentição oral. Incertezas quanto ao posicionamento genérico de Astyanax paranahybae são discutidas e propõe-se que a espécie seja membro de um clado de Characidae que não inclui Astyanax.

A new species of the deep-sea ceratioid anglerfish genus Chaenophryne Regan (Lophiiformes: Oneirodidae), Chaenophryne quasiramifera, is described on the basis of two female specimens collected from the Nasca Ridge and Peru-Chile Trench in the Eastern Tropical Pacific Ocean. The new form is distinguished from its congeners by a combination of features that includes escal morphology, illicium length, and jaw-tooth and fin-ray counts. The new species is diagnosed and described, and a revised key to the species is provided.

Several aspects of vision in juvenile and adult Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas) are examined, with special reference to retinal anatomy such as oil droplet topography, transmission electron microscopy of photoreceptors, spectral transmission measurements of the ocular media (cornea, lens, and vitreous humor), and measurements of focal length and optical sensitivity. A detailed study of the distribution of the different color classes of oil droplets shows that all oil droplets are found in high concentrations (>1000 mm⁻²) in the central/temporal parts of the retina. Red oil droplets were the largest, followed by yellow and clear. Oil droplet size varied in different parts of the retina. On average, red oil droplets were found in fewer numbers compared to yellow and clear oil droplets. Two types of clear oil droplets were identified: those that fluoresced under UV illumination and those that did not. We found that the majority (78.5%) of colorless oil droplets fluoresced when viewed under UV light. Spectral transmission measurements of the ocular media show that wavelengths to approximately 325 nm are transmitted. This may suggest ultraviolet (UV) vision in Green Turtles. The optical sensitivity of the Green Turtle eye was relatively low, suggesting an adaptation to high light intensities commonly experienced by this species.

We used mitochondrial (cytb, 16S) and nuclear (ITS2, S71, RAG1) sequence data to assess the degree of genetic differentiation between the recently described lacustrine Hypomesus chishimaensis from the Kuril Islands and its anadromous congener H. nipponensis from Hokkaido, Japan. The results showed that the two species are not genetically distinct at these loci. Phylogenetic trees depicted an unstructured clade consisting of individuals of both species and sequence data showed haplotypes that are shared between putative species for all markers. We conclude that H. chishimaensis is an alternative life-history type of H. nipponensis that should not be recognized at either the species or the sub-species level.

Deforestation may cause substantial changes in community structure along freshwater habitat gradients. This study evaluated how biotic and abiotic factors affect the distribution and reproductive success of two frog species in Central Amazon. Ponds in continuous and disturbed forest were surveyed to determine the distribution of their associated aquatic predators and the production of newly metamorphosed frogs. The effect of each predator assemblage on tadpole survival was tested using mesocosms. Newly metamorphosed Osteocephalus taurinus occurred in short hydroperiod ponds in disturbed forest, where they had lower encounter frequencies with aquatic insects and no fish were detected. In contrast, newly metamorphosed Phyllomedusa tarsius were associated with longer hydroperiod ponds in continuous forest where fish and aquatic insects were prevalent. In the experimental study, O. taurinus tadpoles had lower survival rates than P. tarsius tadpoles, suggesting that O. taurinus is more vulnerable to fish and insect predators. These results are consistent with the pattern of metamorphic success along the hydroperiod gradient in the study area. If intact continuous forest continues to be harvested, species that require ponds with longer hydroperiods for successful metamorphosis would be prone to population declines.

Sciaenid fishes are well known for their ability to make sound. These sounds are produced by the interaction between the sonic muscles and swim bladder, and are often associated with disturbance or reproduction. From experiments conducted in captivity and observations made in the field, I characterized another acoustic behavior of Atlantic Croaker (Micropogonias undulatus), termed “knock” calling, and explored hypotheses regarding its function. Knock calls consisted of one to six transient pulses, with two pulses being most common. Mean call duration was 97 msec (SD  =  56, 95% C.I.  =  88–106) msec. Dominant frequencies varied inversely with fish size. Knock calling occurred at all times of day, but calling rates peaked at night for Atlantic Croaker stocked in a research pond. In the pond, per capita calling rate (calls/fish/min) was negatively correlated with the stocking density of Atlantic Croaker. In the field, overall calling rates (calls/min) were positively correlated with Atlantic Croaker density. Knock calling was not associated with either distress or reproductive behaviors. Knock calls differed from disturbance calls with regard to the number of pulses and the temporal spacing between pulses. In captivity, knock calls were recorded when adult and juvenile fish were stocked together, as well as when only juvenile fish were stocked. This study suggests that Atlantic Croaker may use acoustic communication more extensively than believed previously. Further, it reveals a discrepancy between the dominant frequencies produced by juvenile Atlantic Croaker and the known frequency range of this species' hearing, prompting questions about possible changes in frequency sensitivity with ontogeny, the ecological costs of sound production, and juvenile behavior.

The growth hormone gene has been used to infer phylogenetic relationships in fishes, and in closely related species the intronic sequence has shown particular value in discriminating among taxa. We examined the growth hormone gene in the esocid family by cloning the fourth intron of the growth hormone gene from all five esocid species. Our initial analysis identified a 33-nucleotide minisatellite in the fourth intron that is present in copy numbers ranging from seven to 16 among the various species. Database searches indicate that this minisatellite is present only as a single copy element in all of the salmonids, indicating a recent expansion in the esocid species since their divergence from a common ancestor. The minisatellite was not detected in any other growth hormone sequences available at the time of this writing. Furthermore, point mutations and deletions in the esocid minisatellites indicate a model for the evolution of this genetic element and corroborate existing molecular phylogenies for the five members of this genus.

Females often have traits that may be useful as indicators of their reproductive status. Female Green Swordtails (Xiphophorus helleri) have a brood patch, a darkened region on their abdomen that is largest prior to parturition. In this field experiment, female Green Swordtails either received a control treatment or their brood patch was augmented with tattoo ink. The females were released sequentially and the number of males approaching and courting each of these females was recorded. The number of males approaching females of the sham and augmented groups was indistinguishable, but significantly more males courted the females with augmented brood patches than the females of the sham group. Male responses to female indicators of reproductive status suggest that males may make evolutionarily important mating decisions due to either time or sperm limitation.

The structure and composition of the ventral portion of the occipital region of the skull in Arapaima gigas (Osteoglossidae) is unique among teleostean fishes, and past comparative anatomical studies have variously interpreted it as containing only the basioccipital or the basioccipital fused to one or two vertebral centra. By studying an ontogenetic series, we show that the dominant element of the ventral occipital region of the skull in Arapaima is the first vertebral centrum and its greatly enlarged parapophyses. The parapophyses, which become fused to the centrum, extend anteriorly to suture to the lateral portions of the parasphenoid. In the adult, the anterior portion of the basioccipital is flattened, with a narrow ventrally directed keel of bone that is exposed ventrally only along the midline of the skull. Although a general enlargement of the anteriormost parapophyses appears to be a synapomorphy of the family Osteoglossidae, their arrangement in other osteoglossids does not closely resemble that described herein for Arapaima.