A unique specimen of Myctophum phengodes (family Myctophidae) from the South Atlantic is reported with three extraneous primary photophores along one side of the dorsal profile; all usual photophore series for this species are present. The supracaudal gland is encircled by a silvery band instead of a simple black band, a condition not observed in other species of Myctophum examined. Photophore patterns of myctophids are the primary method of determining species identification. Other myctophids have been found with small positional variations for a single photophore (usually only one side of the body), but are readily identifiable to species. While one specimen with extraneous photophores widely separated from and not part of typical series is not considered taxonomically significant, it is important to determine if this is a single abnormal individual or a unique population identifier.

This study investigated avian predation on Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) sea turtle eggs and hatchlings at the Ostional (Costa Rica) arribada beach. Our objectives were to identify avian predators and describe their behavior, examine avian foraging opportunities for obtaining eggs and hatchlings, describe different foraging opportunities, and to examine differences in the time hatchlings were exposed on the sand surface to avian predators as a function of time of day, sand temperature, number of hatchlings emerging at one time, and position in the emergence order (early, middle, or late). The timing of nesting and hatchling emergence, length of the incubation period, and heavy rains provided birds with foraging opportunities. Timing is critical because: 1) females nest in every month, but hatchlings require 45–65 days to hatch, thus nesting females dig up nests from previous nestings, 2) heavy rains increase stream flow, causing bank erosion, exposing nests to avian predators, 3) strong tides expose nests to avian predators, 4) hatchlings emerging in the early morning are visible to birds, and 5) length of time for hatchlings to emerge from the nest and reach the water varies among clutches. Black Vultures (Coragyps atratus), Wood Storks (Mycteria americana), and Great-tailed Grackles (Quiscalus mexicanus) accounted for most of the avian predation. Vultures foraged by searching for hatchlings on the surface, for eggs or hatchlings exposed by dogs or people, for clusters of birds around emerging hatchlings, and for opportunities to pirate eggs or hatchlings from other birds. Olive Ridleys avoid predation by predator swamping, nocturnal nesting, and nocturnal emergence of young. Humans decreased predation on hatchlings by removing debris that impedes hatchling movement to the sea, and by keeping predatory birds off the beach during the main early morning hatchling emergence period.

In the majority of frogs, males but not females produce vocalizations to attract mates. Sexual selection can influence the evolution of these vocalizations by modifying the frog's morphology. The larynx is the main organ responsible for sound production; thus, it constitutes a target of selection. The goal of this study was to determine qualitatively and quantitatively the sexual differences in the developmental sequence of larynges of Physalaemus pustulosus ( = Engystomops pustulosus). We examined larynges of individuals ranging from recent metamorphs to adults. We provide quantitative measurements of laryngeal area and volume, vocal cords, and fibrous mass 1 (FM1), as well as qualitative descriptions of the developmental origin of vocal cords and FM1. Larynges of small male and female juveniles (less than 16 mm SVL) are similar, both externally and internally. The area of these larynges is no more than 1 mm²; no vocal cords or FM1 are present in either sex at this developmental stage. In individuals larger than 16 mm SVL, there is a marked divergence in relative size of the larynx between the sexes. The male larynx begins to exhibit a strong positive allometry until it reaches a plateau at 24 mm SVL. Also, at 16 mm SVL, the vocal cords and FM1 appear as distinctive outgrowths on the wall of the arytenoid cartilage in male larynges. Female growth rate of the larynx, however, is constant and exhibits negative allometry throughout ontogeny. Female vocal cords and FM1 are barely distinguishable as adults, and never attain the size and most likely neither the mobility as in the adult male larynx.

Do high-latitude environments constrain life histories of ectotherms? One expectation is that shorter and cooler active seasons at high latitudes limit opportunities for maintenance of optimum body temperature and restrict time for foraging and therefore for growth and reproduction. Thus, under this hypothesis, individuals in high-latitude populations of wide-ranging species would be predicted to grow more slowly, have lower reproductive output, and perhaps reproduce less frequently than lower-latitude conspecifics. However, at Miquelon Lake in central Alberta, the Plains Garter Snake (Thamnophis radix) grows as fast annually as more southerly conspecifics and reaches sexual maturity at the same age. Here, we make a comparable test of latitudinal variation in reproductive traits. Both litter size and offspring size were larger in the Miquelon Lake population than at lower latitudes. Moreover, female snakes could reproduce annually, although the frequency of annual reproduction remains unknown. Litter size was positively related to female size, but also varied annually, apparently in relation to the previous year's weather (higher litter size with lower rainfall and higher temperature the previous year); the most parsimonious interpretation of this observation is that warm, sunny weather facilitates the acquisition of capital resources for the subsequent year's reproduction. Overall, the Miquelon Lake snakes appear to have a ‘fast’ life history, presumably as a result of a productive environment that provides an abundance of anurans, which constitute the primary prey of T. radix at this site, but this hypothesis is untested.

Tandanus tropicanus, new species, is described based on specimens from streams in the wet tropics region of northeast Queensland. Previously, two species were recognized in the genus Tandanus: T. tandanus of eastern Australia and T. bostocki of Western Australia. A combination of meristic and morphometric characters distinguishes the new species from all congeners. Further, taxonomic distinctness based on morphologic differences between the new species and all congeners is corroborated by genetic analyses.

Characidium litorale, a new species of characidiin fish, is described from coastal basins of the northeastern portion of the Serra do Mar, State of Rio de Janeiro, southeastern Brazil. The species presents thin dark secondary bars (vertical streaks not associated with dorsal marks) positioned between the primary vertical bars (bars directly associated with well-defined dorsal marks) on the side of the body. Characidium litorale is the first species described from the southeastern Brazilian coastal drainages with basicaudal black spot well defined, fully scaled isthmus, and hyaline fins. Unlike other species of Characidium from this region (predominately found associated with rocky substrate), C. litorale has psammophilous habits. An identification key to the species of Characidium occurring sympatrically with the new species is presented.

Descreve-se Characidium litorale, nova espécie de peixe caracidiíneo distribuída em bacias costeiras da porção nordeste da Serra do Mar, Estado do Rio de Janeiro, sudeste do Brasil. A espécie apresenta barras secundárias finas e escuras (estrias verticais não associadas a manchas dorsais) localizadas entre as barras verticais primárias (barras diretamente associadas a manchas dorsais bem definidas) das laterais do corpo. Characidium litorale é a primeira espécie descrita das drenagens costeiras do sudeste do Brasil com ponto preto basicaudal bem definido, escamação completa no istmo, e nadadeiras hialinas. Diferentemente das outras espécies de Characidium dessa região (predominantemente encontradas associadas a substratos rochosos), C. litorale possui hábitos psamófilos. Apresenta-se uma chave de identificação para espécies de Characidium que ocorrem em simpatria com a nova espécie.

Callogobius clarki (Goren) is redescribed based on 21 specimens from the Red Sea. This species was originally described from a single specimen collected from the Red Sea, but subsequent workers have placed it in synonymy with the Western Indian Ocean species C. bifasciatus (Smith). However, it differs from C. bifasciatus in lacking all head pores, and having a lower range in several meristic values (pectoral-fin rays usually 15–17 vs. 16–18, lateral scale rows usually 33–39 vs. 39–46, predorsal scale rows 12–15 vs. 16–20, transverse scale rows usually 17–18 vs. 18–22, and transverse mandibular papillae rows usually 11 vs. 12). Within the genus, C. clarki is a member of the sclateri group, exhibiting a female urogenital papilla with small distal flaps of skin, elongate ctenii on some caudal peduncle scales, and preopercular sensory papillae rows not continuous with the transverse opercular rows.

Morphological characteristics of fish communities were compared in four rivers with different levels of anthropogenic disturbance: Cipó, Curimataí, Pardo Grande, and Velhas. Discriminant function analysis indicated no morphological differences among the communities, suggesting a general morphological pattern for different river communities, regardless of their disturbance level. However, this pattern was shaped by different taxa in each river. Because of the poorer condition of the Velhas River (substrate type, riparian vegetation, and anthropogenic disturbance), it seems that species morphological range is influencing the common morphological pattern. Even with notable differences in biological condition, the Velhas River still accommodates the same range of morphological types, but not the same species pool found in well-preserved rivers within the basin. For this reason, the maintenance of tributaries, with their particular fish species and different physical habitat characteristics, is essential for the conservation of the ichthyofauna on a basin scale. Moreover, the analysis of morphology and composition together allowed a more critical approach of disturbance effects and suggested that these community aspects respond differently.

Homalopteroides avii, new species, is described from the Rajang River basin, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. It is distinguished from all other species of Homalopteroides by a wider gape of 28.5–33.3% HL vs. 22.3–24.2% for H. wassinkii, 20.0–28.4% for H. modestus, 19.1% for H. rupicola, 19.1–27.3% for H. smithi, 20.0–23.2% for H. stephensoni, 20.2–26.9% for H. weberi, 18.4–26.0% for H. tweediei, 17.3% for H. indochinensis, 17.4–21.2% for H. nebulosus, and 18.0–19.0% for H. yuwonoi. It is further distinguished from species of Homalopteroides by the presence of a lateral cephalic stripe vs. absence in H. modestus, H. rupicola, H. smithi, H. tweediei, H. nebulosus, and H. yuwonoi; deeper caudal peduncle, 10.1–10.9% SL, vs. 8.4–9.0% for H. wassinkii, 8.7% for H. rupicola, 7.7–9.1% for H. smithi, 6.1–6.6% for H. stephensoni, 6.7–8.0% for H. weberi, 8.0–9.4% for H. tweediei, 9.3–9.8% for H. nebulosus, 8.7% for H. indochinensis, and 7.3% for H. yuwonoi; circumpeduncular scale count of 20–22 vs. 16 for H. rupicola, H. stephensoni, H. nebulosus, H. indochinensis, and H. yuwonoi, 14–16 for H. tweedei, and 16–18 for H. smithi and H. weberi; total pelvic-fin ray count of 9 vs. 10 for H. stephensoni, H. weberi, and H. yuwonoi. The species is relatively large for the genus, reaching 52.9 mm SL.

The Southern Hognose Snake (Heterodon simus) is a poorly known and declining species in the southeastern U.S. We conducted road surveys from 1985–2012 and accumulated 764 observations of this species from the sandhills and southeastern Coastal Plain of North Carolina. Here, we report information on the size, sex ratio, diet, diel and seasonal activity patterns, and population trends of this rare species. Our results show that sexual dimorphism is biased toward larger females in this species, and that sex ratios are even in young size classes but become skewed toward males in adult size classes. Observations of this species peak during September–October, and most observations occurred from late morning through early afternoon during this seasonal peak of activity. We observed this species in similar numbers for the past 28 years, and no historical trend in our encounter rates was discernible. Recorded dietary items were made up almost entirely of the lizard Aspidoscelis sexlineata and the anuran Scaphiopus holbrookii. This study fills important gaps in our understanding of this rare species, provides an important baseline useful for future researchers or researchers in other regions, and provides information useful for developing effective management strategies and search protocols for H. simus.

The Blue Riffle Goby, Stiphodon caeruleus (Gobiidae: Sicydiinae), is an amphidromous species endemic to the volcanic islands of Kosrae and Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, in the eastern Caroline Islands. This study evaluated the population genetic structure and demographic history of S. caeruleus using mitochondrial NADH subunits 4 (ND4) and 4L (ND4L) DNA sequences. A total of 876 base pairs were successfully sequenced for 208 specimens from 15 localities. Twenty-three haplotypes were recovered with diversity indices of h  =  0.489±0.043 and π  =  0.097±0.012% that are lower than many other marine species. The median-joining network of haplotypes is star-like in formation and displayed no genetic structure. AMOVA results show that 99% of the genetic variation is found within populations, rather than between streams or islands. Mismatch distribution analysis and associated statistical tests indicate that a very recent demographic expansion has occurred for the species. Bayesian skyline plot confirms a gradual demographic expansion over the past 5000 years. This expansion is coincident with a reduction in sea level that produced coastal plains and shallow coastal waters, and human settlement of the islands. Our analyses suggest that populations of S. caeruleus among streams are historically unstructured for ND4 and ND4L haplotypes, that larvae may be presently recruited among streams of both islands, and that further nuclear DNA investigations are warranted to resolve potential genetic divergence of populations.

We investigate whether Taricha granulosa, the rough-skinned newt, possesses pheromone-producing courtship glands in the submandibular dermis. The hypothesis that these newts have a pheromone-producing mental gland repeatedly appears in the literature based on a small histological study and on courtship behavior in which males press their chins on females' nares. We identify a sexually dimorphic granular gland in the submandibular region of male newts. Its secretion is granular and PAS (periodic acid-Schiff)-positive, in contrast to the PAS-negative secretion of typical granular glands. This gland type is found only in males and only in the anterior submandibular region. Compared to glands evaluated from non-breeding males, the glands from animals collected in the breeding season are hypertrophied. This sexually dimorphic granular gland is distinct from the mental gland found in plethodontid salamanders; the plethodontid mental gland is an aggregate of individual glands, whereas the granular glands in T. granulosa are not clustered together to form a distinct unit. Our results support the hypothesis that males are secreting pheromones from submandibular glands during courtship in T. granulosa.

Nannocharax hastatus, new species, is described from the Lékoli River in the Likouala River system, Pool Malebo, and the Luilaka and Tshuapa rivers of the Momboyo river basin in the northwestern and central portions of the Congo River basin. The new species shares with N. ocellicauda and N. maculicauda a distinctive coloration pattern of a nearly completely unpigmented body other than for dark lines along the bases of the anal and dorsal fins and a longitudinally elongate, ovoid, dark spot on the posterior portion of the caudal peduncle and basal region of the central caudal-fin rays. That pigmentation pattern is unique to these three species in what was defined as the Hemigrammocharax–Nannocharax clade. In addition to coloration the three species share a distinctive overall elongate form of the head and body. Nannocharax hastatus differs from N. ocellicauda and N. maculicauda in the extent of poring along the lateral line and number of lateral line and circumpeduncular scales. Variation in the degree of poring of the lateral line in the species complex formed by these three species provides further evidence that the feature used-to-date to delimit Hemigrammocharax from Nannocharax—the extent of poring along the lateral line—fails to define monophyletic assemblages, and Hemigrammocharax is placed into the synonymy of Nannocharax which now forms a monophyletic assemblage.

The lower jaw of Lepisosteus osseus has been described as containing a U-shaped cartilaginous structure identified as a detached portion of Meckel's cartilage. We investigated this structure through study of a growth series of L. osseus, including cleared-and-stained specimens and histological preparations. Meckel's cartilage is well developed by 17.2 mm SL, and is formed by typical hyaline cartilage. The left and right Meckel's cartilage are continuous across the anterior midline in most small specimens (<35 mm SL), although the robustness of this continuity is variable and in some specimens the two sides are separate. In larger individuals (>85 mm SL) the left and right sides are separate from one another and end far posterior to the tip of the dentaries. In specimens between 17.6–22.1 mm SL, there is a diffuse, V-shaped patch of connective tissue between the rami of the lower jaws. By 35 mm SL this patch becomes more consolidated and in histological sections of a 44.6 mm SL specimen, it is revealed to contain chondrocytes. In even larger individuals, this becomes a well-defined U-shaped structure. Because both this structure and a Meckel's cartilage that crosses the anterior midline are present in the same individuals, we conclude that this cartilage is not homologous to the anterior portion of Meckel's cartilage (i.e., it fails the test of conjunction) but is rather a neomorphic structure, herein termed the rostrohyal.

Two species of Eviota are described, E. aquila, new species, from Taiwan and E. epistigmata, new species, from the Moluccas, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. Both are in cephalic sensory-canal pore Group I (complete). Eviota aquila, new species, has a dorsal/anal-fin formula of 9/8; lacks distinct spots or bars on the pectoral-fin base, although the base is heavily peppered with small black dots that are confluent with pigment over the breast and pelvic-fin base; the fifth pelvic-fin ray is absent or rudimentary and the pectoral-fin rays are usually 16. Eviota epistigmata, new species, has a dorsal/anal-fin formula of 8/8; the fifth pelvic-fin rays are absent or rudimentary; a small, dark occipital spot is present; five or fewer dark internal spots or bands between anal-fin origin and caudal fin; no distinct marking on the pectoral-fin base; and no dark pigment on the opercular membrane.

Non-modal scute patterns are observed more frequently in hatchlings than in adult sea turtles, which suggests greater survival of hatchlings with the modal scute pattern. Here we compare morphological parameters and fitness correlates of hatchlings of Caretta caretta and Natator depressus with the modal scute pattern against those with non-modal scute patterns. We found hatchlings with the modal scute pattern were larger and heavier than those with non-modal scute patterns; however, this size difference did not translate into a difference in crawling speed or self-righting ability for either species. There was also no difference in swim thrust produced by hatchlings of C. caretta over the first four hours of swimming; however, hatchlings of N. depressus with the modal pattern produced greater swim thrust during the first 40 minutes of swimming than those with non-modal scute patterns. This difference may affect the risk of predation and mortality at this early life stage.

The Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus) is considered one of the most dangerous in North America and its venom can be classified into three types (Type A, B, and A B) according to its neurotoxic and/or hemorrhagic effects. The objective of this study was to identify the venom of several individuals of C. s. scutulatus present in the Comarca Lagunera, Mexico. Eleven venom samples of the Mojave rattlesnake collected at several localities from the center of Chihuahuan Desert were evaluated by SDS-PAGE, western blot, and gelatinase, hyaluronidase, and hemorrhagic activity tests. In addition, DNA samples were analyzed by PCR to identify Mojave toxin and disintegrin genes. Based on the similar biochemistry and biological activity demonstrated by all the venoms of C. s. scutulatus from the Comarca Lagunera, and considering the absence of Mojave toxin in these venoms, it is possible to establish that individuals with Type B venom are distributed within the Comarca Lagunera. This work represents the first study of the venom of a population of C. s. scutulatus in Mexico and confirms the second population with Type B venom of this species within its geographic distribution.

Robust Redhorse (Moxostoma robustum) is a deep-dwelling catostomid that lives in southeastern rivers of the United States. After being lost to science for about 100 years, M. robustum was rediscovered in the 1980s by the Georgia DNR and is a federal species of special concern. Our goal was to genetically characterize populations of M. robustum in the Savannah and Pee Dee rivers based on genetic diversity and population structure using a suite of ten microsatellites. Substantial levels of population structure were detected between rivers (R_ST  =  0.308), with high genetic diversity (0.81–0.87) and low inbreeding in both systems. Long-term estimates of effective population sizes were very high for both systems, but contemporary estimates were substantially lower, with the Pee Dee River estimate being of concern from a conservation standpoint. Their long life span and overlapping generations result in a high potential for across-year-class spawning and are likely contributing to the maintenance of high genetic diversity in light of their decreased effective population sizes. Although statistical modeling indicates a faster loss of allelic richness as compared to heterozygosity, results are congruent as the Savannah River population is forecast to maintain 90% of its genetic diversity for >200 years and the Pee Dee for ∼65–120 years. These results support the current management view of each river as evolutionarily significant units, provide an important genetic baseline for future monitoring of populations of M. robustum, and build an excellent foundational tool for any future population restoration activities.

Bujurquina pardus is described from 12 specimens collected in 1989 from the Río Danta in the upper reaches of the Río Tigre drainage in the Pastaza province of Ecuador. It is distinguished from all other Bujurquina by a pattern of small dark spots arranged in rows along its flanks. Bujurquina pardus can be further distinguished from all other Bujurquina by the combination of whitish hyaline dorsal-fin lappet margins, rather than black lappets margins, and a lateral band which reaches the dorsal edge of the caudal peduncle, rather than only reaching the soft dorsal-fin base. It can be further distinguished from many of its congeners by the presence of spotting on the spinous dorsal fin and in having short pectoral fins (<32% of SL). A key to all the currently described species of Bujurquina is provided.

Bujurquina pardus se describe de 12 individuos colectados en 1989 en el Río Danta en la cuenca superior del Río Tigre, Provincia de Pastaza, Ecuador. Se distingue de todas las otras especies de Bujurquina por el patrón único de pequeños puntos oscuros dispuestos en filas a lo largo de los flancos. Bujurquina pardus se distingue además de todas las otras especies de Bujurquina por la presencia de extensiones blancas, en lugar de negras, en la aleta dorsal y una banda lateral que se extiende hasta el borde dorsal del pedúnculo caudal, en lugar de alcanzar solamente la base de la aleta dorsal blanda. La especie puede distinguirse de muchos de sus congéneres por la presencia de puntos oscuros en la porción espinosa de la aleta dorsal y por tener aletas pectorales cortas (<32% de la longitude estándar). Se provee una clave para todas las especies descritas de Bujurquina.

Determinations of the age structure of wild teleost populations are vital for sustainable management and conservation efforts. Yet the commonly applied increment-based ageing techniques are limited in some teleost species due to the subjectivity and interpretation of increment patterning, and destructive sampling. Here the application of telomere length as an alternate age determinate was assessed in wild caught specimens of the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Telomere lengths were measured from muscle biopsies and fin clips using the absolute quantitative PCR method and correlated to specimen fork lengths. Measures of telomere lengths did not differ between sexes or states of sexual maturity. However, tissue type influenced telomere lengths, with telomere lengths measured in muscle biopsies significantly increasing with increased fork lengths of C. carpio. No discernable trend was seen for fin clip derived telomeres. High levels of variability in telomere length within and among size cohorts suggest that telomere length is not a suitable means of estimating the ages of C. carpio. The cross sectional design adopted here most likely masked complex telomeric dynamics at the individual level, which are influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic processes. Understanding the causative influences of these processes on the telomere lengths of C. carpio may aid in utilizing measures of telomere length as an alternate measure of an individual's condition. Nevertheless, the need remains to develop novel non-lethal fish ageing techniques to overcome limitations of the current increment-based fish ageing technique.

In a recent phylogenetic analysis of Teiidae based on morphological characters, three new genera were erected to remove polyphyletism in the genus Cnemidophorus. Accordingly, Ameivula was proposed to accommodate the species formerly included in the Cnemidophorus ocellifer group, characterized by the presence of granules in the supraocular semicircles, femoral pores fewer than 40, and preanal spurs absent. Here we describe a new species of Ameivula from the mountain region of Parque Nacional Serra do Cipó, Minas Gerais, that is apparently endemic to high elevations between 900 and about 1200 m. The new species can be easily distinguished from its congeners by the presence of three supraocular scales, a contact between frontoparietal scale and the third supraoculars (circumorbital with an incomplete series of granules), a third pair of chinshields larger than the others and low number of fourth finger lamellae.

En un reciente análisis filogenético de Teiidae, basado en caracteres morfológicos tres nuevos géneros fueron propuestos para eliminar el polifiletismo de Cnemidophorus. En consecuencia, Ameivula fue propuesto para acomodar a las especies antiguamente incluidas en el grupo de Cnemidophorus ocellifer, caracterizado por la presencia de semicírculos supraoculares, un bajo número de poros femorales y ausencia de espinas en la base de la cloaca. Aquí describimos una nueva de este género de la región montañosa del Parque Nacional Serra do Cipó, estado de Minas Gerais, aparentemente endémica de elevaciones comprendidas entre 900 m y 1200 m. La nueva especie puede ser fácilmente distinguible de sus cogenéricas por tener tres escamas supraoculares, escama frontoparietal en contacto con la tercera supraocular (semicírculo de gránulos incompletos), tercero par de geneiales más grande que los demás y un número bajo de lamellas del cuarto dedo de la mano.