Open Access
How to translate text using browser tools
11 April 2019 Scyphophorus acupunctatus (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae): A Weevil Threatening the Production of Agave in Mexico
Jaime Alioscha Cuervo-Parra, Victor Hugo Pérez-España, Pablo Antonio López Pérez, Mario Alberto Morales-Ovando, Oscar Arce-Cervantes, José Esteban Aparicio-Burgos, Teresa Romero-Cortes
Author Affiliations +
Abstract

Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae), which also is known as agave weevil, is distributed across 5 continents. In Mexico, their presence has been reported in 12 states. Many species of Agave (Asparagaceae) are suitable hosts, though not all are equally suitable. Plant infestation can start with either female or male weevils, and their presence can be detected by gummy secretions emanating from feeding sites. The punctures are observed principally in the lower part of the trunk and external roots of the infested plants. Eggs are deposited singly or in clusters of up to 4 eggs at the feeding punctures after tissue decay has begun. The eggs hatch after about 5 d, and young larvae begin to create tunnels in the plant tissue. The larvae display 11 instars, and require about 50 to 90 d for development. The pupae normally require 11 to 14 d. The life cycle lasts between 105 to 137 d depending on the agave species with which the weevil is associated. The active insect can attack during any mo of the yr, although it is more frequent in the rainy season. Scyphophorus acupunctatus dispersion is determined by the attraction of volatile agave compounds. This insect apparently introduces different microorganisms that have been associated with the agave maladies. Plant extracts and seed powders have been assessed as potential botanical insecticides on larvae and pupae, with plant extracts causing mortality of 43 to 53% in larvae and 3 to 15% in pupae, and with seed powders causing 90 to 100% larval mortality. Synthetic insecticides have not been successful because the larvae and adults live inside the plant tissues. Alternative effective control tactics are needed to avoid increased damage and destruction of this important crop.

The genus Agave (Asparagaceae) consists of 273 species, of which 75% grow in Mexico (García & Galván 1995). These plants have branched roots, a thick cuticle (depending on the species), succulent leaves with sunken stomata, and CAM metabolism (Dominguez et al. 2008). They provide an environmental and an agro-ecological service in the semi-desert areas where they grow (García & Galván 1995).

The Agave species that have a commercial use are Agave tequilana F.A.C. Weber, Agave americana L., Agave sisalana Perrine, and Agave salmiana Otto ex Salm-Dyck (Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013). These plants are used commercially for the production of fermented beverages (mescal, tequila, and pulque), in the textile industry for fiber extraction, as biofuel, and for by-product extraction (such as fructose and inulin, among others) (Nikam 1997; Magallán & Hernández 2000; García et al. 2010).

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SCYPHOPHORUS ACUPUNCTATUS

The principal pest that attacks Agave crops is Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae), which also is known as agave weevil. It is a polyphagous species in the family Dryophthoridae (or Curculionidae) (Solís-Aguilar et al. 2001). Currently, it is distributed across 5 continents (Table 1). In Mexico, the presence of S. acupunctatus has been reported in 12 states (Fig. 1): Guanajuato; Baja California Sur; Puebla; Queretaro; Tlaxcala; Yucatan (Halffter 1956; Molina 2013); Morelos (municipality of Emiliano Zapata; Valdés-Estrada et al. 2010); Jalisco (municipalities of Aluahulco de Mercado, Ameca, Amatitan, Zapotlanejo, Tepatlitan, and Tequila; Figueroa-Castro et al. 2013); Guerrero (municipalities of Quetzalapa, Huitzuco de los Figueroa; Figueroa-Castro et al. 2016); Tamaulipas (Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013); Oaxaca (municipalities of Tlacolula, Totolapan, Santa del Valle, Yautepec, and Matatlan; Espinosa-Paz et al. 2005; Aquino-Bolaños et al. 2006, 2007, 2010; Bravo 2003); and Hidalgo (municipalities of Apan, Emiliano Zapata, Voladores, and Almoloya; Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013).

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF AGAVE

Tequila is an alcoholic beverage obtained from the blue agave (Agave tequilana F.A.C. Weber). Blue agave is grown in the Mexican states of Jalisco, Guanajuato, Nayarit, Michoacan, and Tamaulipas, with a planted area of 111,420 ha in 2016. The production of tequila represents 1.25% of agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and exports were valued at 1,203 million dollars (SAGARPA 2017). The Tequila Regulatory Council (CRT) reported that 17,500 farmers and more than 50,000 jobs were dependent on blue agave (CRT 2009). The Secretaria de Agricultura, Ganadería, Desarrollo Rural, Pesca y Alimentación (2010) records an inventory of 310 million plants, 150 tequila factories, 60,000 direct jobs, and 900,000 day farmers.

Table 1.

Distribution of Scyphophorus acupunctatus in the world.

t01_01.gif

In addition, agave serves as a host for insect larvae (Comadia redtenbacheri Hammerschmidt [Lepidoptera: Cossidae], Aegiale hesperiaris Walker [Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae]) that are highly valued in both national and international cuisine (Erlwein et al. 2009). The maguey red worm (Comadia redtenbacheri) called “chinicuil” or “tecol,” contains 7 essential amino acids and has an energy value of 607.9 kcal per 100 g; this worm is found in roots of the maguey (Llanderal-Cázares et al. 2010). The maguey white worm (Aegiale hesperiaris) is found in the maguey leaves and roots, and has a high nutritional value. Also, Liometopum apiculatum Mayr (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) brood are a delicacy known as “escamoles”; these ants commonly nest under the agave plants (Rafael-Valdez et al. 2017).

Pulque is an ancestral Mexican drink that is still being produced in a traditional way in the Mexican central region. The raw material for pulque is principally Agave salmiana (maguey pulquero). During the 19th and early 20th centuries, when pulque was very popular, pulque production was one of the principal economic activities of the region. Currently, the pulque industry no longer exists on a large scale; however, some producers realize a weekly income of approximately US $200 (Erlwein et al. 2009).

Nowadays, there are many industries engaged in obtaining other derivatives of the agave, such as inulin, mixiotes (cuticle), fiber for the textile industry, mescal, etc. However, the agave weevil can drastically affect agave fields and, therefore, the economic situation of the producers.

Bud rot is a disease characterized by the presence of necrotic lesions on the agave leaf tips at the beginning of the disease (Rubio-Cortes 2007). The lesions advance to the center until they reach the center of the pineapple causing soft rot (Martínez-Ramírez 2011). The progress of the disease depends on the level of moisture that accumulates in the heart (DGSV-CNRF 2017). Bud rot in mezcalero agave is associated with high populations of S. acupunctatus (Espinoza-Paz et al. 2005). Microorganisms have been detected on the external surface of the insect, which enter the plant through the perforations caused by the insect when feeding (Rubio-Cortes 2017).

In Jalisco, one of the most important states for production of A. tequilana, bud rot associated with agave weevil has an incidence between 25 and 93% in some localities (Castro-Valera 2003). In Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, and Mexico states, the principal producers of A. salmiana, bud rot has been reported to cause damage to 30% of the cultivated plants (Ruvalcaba 1983). In Yucatán State, the principal producer of A. fourcroydes Lem., the weevil has caused damage of up to 40% (Valdés-Rodríguez et al. 2004; Solís-Aguilar et al. 2001; SIAP 2017).

Fig. 1.

Distribution of Scyphophorus acupunctatus in Mexico.

f01_01.jpg

HOST PLANTS OF SCYPHOPHORUS ACUPUNCTATUS

Scyphophorus acupunctatus can attack many plants from the family Asparagaceae, including Dracaena draco L., Furcraea cubensis (Jacq.) Vent., F. tuberosa (Mill.), F. foetida (L.) Haw., Polianthes tuberosa L., Beaucarnea spp., Dasylirion longissimum Lem., Yucca aloifolia L., Y. elephantipes L., Y. glauca Nutt., Y. whipplei, (Torr.) Baker, (Riba I Linch & Alonso-Zarazaga 2007; Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013; Vassilis & Pavlos 2015), Y. valida Brandeguee (Servin et al. 2006), Sansevieria trifasciata Prain, Beaucarnea recurvata Lem., and Dasylirion longissimum Lem. (Vassilis & Pavlos 2015). However, agave weevil prefers plants of the genus Agave: A. americana L., A. fourcroydes Lemaire, A. lechuguilla Torr., A. salmiana Otto ex Salm-Dyck, A. sisalana Perrine, A. tequilana F.A.C. Weber (Riba I Linch & Alonso-Zarazaga 2007), A. angustifolia Haw., A. mexicana Lam., A. shawii Engelm., A. cubensis Jacq., A. attenuata Salm-Dyck, A. ferdinandi-regis A. Berger, A. cocui Trel., A. pesmulae Trel., A. atrovirens Karw. Ex Salm-Dyck, A. longisepala Tod., A. palmeri Engelm., A. mapisaga Trel., A. schottii Engelm., A. parryi var. ‘Huachucensis’ Engelm., A. karchovei Lem., A. pseudo-tequilana Trel., A. pacifica Trel., A. peacockii Croucher, and A. subtilis Trel. (Velázquez et al. 2006; Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013).

MECHANISMS OF HOST INVASION BY SCYPHOPHORUS ACUPUNCTATUS

Scyphophorus acupunctatus act in a similar manner among the different species of agave they attack (Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013). According to Figueroa-Castro et al. (2015), S. acupunctatus colonization of tequila, espagnet, and papalote agaves can be initiated by both males and females. The initial damage observed is the presence of gummy secretions: a dark brown, viscous, and sticky exudate near the perforations, with a very characteristic odor (Riba I Linch & Alonso-Zarazaga 2007; SAGARPA 2017). The adults and larvae typically bore into the agave and produce physiological damage by decreasing water and nutrient flow, and mechanical damage by fracturing stems and leaves, consequently affecting production negatively. The losses caused by the mechanical damage are additionally important because they delay the crop harvest (Lock 1957; Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013).

The adult insect burrows into the agave stalk to feed on the succulent stem in the plants, leaving punctures of about 1 cm in diam (Harris 1936). The punctures are observed principally in the lower part of the trunk and portions of the external roots of the infested plants. Adult insects cluster in galleries that can contain between 25 and 39 insects (Fig. 2a). Females use feeding sites with decaying tissue (Harris 1936) for the placement of eggs deep in the agave, and also place eggs on the surface of water-storing tissues (leaves and stems). The larvae hatch and form tunnels, leaving frass in the tunnels inside the leaves and stems (Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013). Before pupation, the larvae build a cocoon with fibrous tissue from the plant (Lock 1957; Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013). Cocoons are found at the base of leaves of certain agave species (Waring & Smith 1986).

In the adult stage, insect activity is crepuscular (SAGARPA 2017), with most activity observed between 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM. They can attack during any mo of the yr, although attack is more frequent in the rainy season (Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013). However, activity varies among different species and geographic location. For example, the highest activity occurs on A. tequilana during the mo of Feb to Jul (Solís-Aguilar et al. 2001). On Agave angustifolia Haw., in the Oaxaca central valleys, maximum activity has been observed in the mo of Jun to Oct, which represents the wettest and warmest period of the year (Aquino-Bolaños et al. 2007). Figueroa-Castro (2009) found the largest populations of agave weevil on A. angustifolia during Apr, May, and Jun in Ahualulco and Amatitán (Oaxaca State).

Fig. 2.

Infestation of Agave salmiana by Scyphophorus acupunctatus: (a) damage by adults in the beam, (b, c) channels built by larvae, and (d) agave heart rot.

f02_01.jpg

When the insect infests mature plants (4–7 yr old), the trunk withers and rots, and the plant tilts toward the ground and dies (Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013). The aggressive attack on plants 4 yr or older is due to the fact that in this stage they produce large amounts of sugars (Solís-Aguilar et al. 2001). Agave tequilana plants attaining 6 to 8 yr of age have high sugar levels of up to 80% of non-structural carbohydrates (Cedeño 1995). Carbohydrates, especially fructose and sucrose, represent an important source of energy for many insects in the larval stage (Valentine 1983).

It is unknown how far insects can move in their adult stage and whether climate contributes to their dispersion (Huxman et al. 1997). In observations made in Caldes d' Estrac park (Barcelona, Spain), new generations of adult agave weevils attack nearby agaves, generally within less than 20 m (Riba I Flinch & Alonso-Zarazaga 2007). On the other hand, using capture-mark-release and recapture techniques, agave weevils were found up to 100 m away (Beltrán 2005).

Scyphophorus acupunctatus dispersion is determined by their attraction to volatile compounds produced by the agave, or by the synergized response of these plant volatiles, and of aggregation pheromones (Ruiz-Montiel et al. 2008). Valdés-Rodríguez et al. (2004) found 5 compounds in henequen extracts (A. fourcroydes) that are attractive to the weevil, which they identified as 4-ethylcumene, p-methoxyethyl-benzene, 1-methyl-4 (1-methyl-ethyl) -cyclohexanol, p-mentha-1-5-dien-8-ol, and butyrophenone. Agave weevils also are attracted by the volatiles generated during fermentation (Rojas et al. 2006).

Punctures made by adult insects (Fig. 2b) and the tunnels created by the larvae (Fig. 2c) allow the entrance of secondary pests and different opportunistic microorganisms that cause rot and accelerate plant destruction (Fig. 2d; Gold & Messiaen 2000). The lesion often becomes noticeable only after 1 to 2 yr, when a large percentage of discolored fibers draws attention to the damage (Schwencke 1934). When weevils attack young plants or shoots, decay does not occur (González et al. 2007).

LIFE CYCLE OF SCYPHOPHORUS ACUPUNCTATUS

As with all holometabolous insects, Scyphophorus acupunctatus has 4 stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult (Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013). Adults are active most of the yr, with varying longevity and duration of their life cycle based on the species of agave with which they are associated. The adult females oviposit near the base of the plant; eggs can be deposited singly or in small groups of 2 to 4 eggs. During its life span, an adult female can oviposit from 30 to 50 eggs (Solís-Aguilar et al. 2001).

Ramírez (1993) reported that adult longevity of the agave weevil under laboratory conditions was more than 1 yr. The cycle duration from eggs to adult was 133 to 137 d, when cultured at an average temperature of 27 °C and RH of 62 to 93%, and a photoperiod of 12:12 h (LD). When fed A. salmiana, the life cycle from egg to adult under laboratory conditions was 81 d (Fig. 3). The average time of egg incubation was 8 d, the larval stage went through 3 instars during the autumn in 58 d, and the pupa required 13 d (range 12 to 14 d). In culture medium with juice of A. tequilana, the cycle averaged 111 d (5 d in the egg stage, 85 d in the larval stage, 4 in the pre-pupal stage, 11 d in the pupal stage, and 6 d for the adults to escape the cocoon). However, when the weevils were fed healthy tissue of A. tequilana, the life cycle lasted an average of 105 d (5 d in the egg stage, 78 d in the larval stage, 6 in the pre-pupal stage, 11 d in the pupal stage, and 5 d as an adult inside the cocoon). In both cases, the time from copulation to oviposition is 21 d (Beltrán 2005).

EGG

The egg is elongate-ovoid, with a length of 1.3 to 1.7 mm and width of 0.5 to 0.7 mm. When newly deposited, the egg is creamy white, with a soft, thin, membranous chorion. As it approaches hatching, it becomes slightly yellow (Lock 1957; Ramírez 1993; Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013). Under the microscope, the cross-linking of the chorion can be distinguished, and in mature eggs the head capsule of the developing larva can be observed (Siller-Jasso 1985).

Fig. 3.

Stages of the Scyphophorus acupunctatus metamorphosis: (a) ventral view of eggs, (b) ventral view of larvae, (c) ventral view of pupa, and (d) lateral view of adult.

f03_01.jpg

LARVA

The larva is robust, with a maximum width of 9 mm, 2.5× longer than wide, with spiracles in the abdominal segments (Chamorro et al. 2016). It is creamy white in color, striated, with soft texture, and without legs. The last abdominal segment is curved upwards and has 2 small fleshy extensions known as urogomphi (Lock 1957; Ramírez 1993; Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013). The head is dark brown or brownish with convergent stripes. The dorsal surface is nonpigmented, slightly longer than wide. Head width is 4.0 to 4.5 mm, and bears jaws that are dark brown or black (Cotton 1924; Harris 1936; Anderson 1948). When it is fully developed, larvae measure 1 to 2.3 cm long (Terán-Vargas & Azuara-Domínguez 2013). Spiracles are bicuspid, with an ill-defined rim surrounded by a pigmented semi-elliptical marking. In the last abdominal segment, there are 2 slightly sclerotized extensions, each bearing 3 long setae (Siller-Jasso 1985; Solís-Aguilar 2001).

PUPA

The pupa is pale yellow, and later darkens as black pigment accumulates and the pupa turns black (Harris 1936). The pupal stage lasts 9 to 10 d. Developing wings are apparent on the dorsal side of the pupa, with the head, snout, eyes, and antennae on the ventral side (Valdés-Estrada et al. 2010). The pupa measures 15 to 19 mm in length (Harris 1936).

ADULT

The adult stage characteristics are not highly variable between female and male (SAGARPA 2017). The face is elongated, but shorter in males. It has a well-developed, bent beak. It does not have functional wings, so the adult moves by walking. The body has a matte black coloration. The size of the adult insect is between 15 and 18 mm long (Siller-Jasso 1985). The morphology of the tip of the abdomen can be used to differentiate sexes; the last abdominal segment is narrow and pointed in females, whereas in males it is wider and blunt (Siller-Jasso 1985; Solís-Aguilar et al. 2001).

MICROORGANISMS ASSOCIATED WITH SCYPHOPHORUS ACUPUNCTATUS

The agave weevil makes it possible for pathogens to enter into the agave (Rodríguez 1999); bacteria, algae, and fungi have been detected in the reddened tissues near the galleries caused by the agave weevil larvae (Waring & Smith 1986). The microorganisms isolated and identified with the BioMérieux's API biochemical test system indicate the presence of Gram negative bacteria such as Pseudomonas paucimobilis Holmes (Sphingomonadaceae) and Erwinia (Enterobacteriaceae) spp., and Gram positive bacteria such as Leuconostoc mesenteroides (Tsenkovskii) van Tieghem (Leuconostocaceae). In addition, some yeasts have been reported: Candida moris, C. famata (Harrison) Novák & Zsolt (Saccharomycetaceae), C. glabrata (Anderson) Mey. & Yarrow (unassigned), and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa (Jörg.) Harrison (unassigned). In agave tissues with a higher level of disease, species such as Candida, Rhodotorula, and Leuconostoc have been reported, whereas Pseudomonas and Erwinia have been found in less damaged tissues (Beltrán 2005). Pseudomonas fluorescens Migula (Pseudomonadaceae) biotype I has been isolated from the body surface of the weevil and rotting agave plants (Fucikovsky 2001).

Rhodotorula, Leuconostoc, Pseudomonas, and Erwinia bacteria were isolated from agave weevil larvae and grown in artificial media (Beltrán 2005). From the body surface of S. acupunctatus and decaying agave plants, other microorganisms have been isolated, such as Pectobacterium carotovorum (Jones) Waldee, emend. Hauben, emend. Gardan (Enterobacteriaceae) (Erwinia carotovora [van Hall] Dye) (Enterobacteriaceae), Erwinia cacticida Alcorn (Enterobacteriaceae), Pantoea agglomerans (Ewing & Fife) Gavini (Enterobacteriaceae), Pseudomonas (Pseudomonaceae) spp., the alga Prototheca (Chlorellaceae) sp., the fungi Aspergillus niger Kirk (Trichocomaceae), Kluyveromyces marxianus (Hansen) Van der Walt (Saccharomycetaceae), Pichia amethionina Starmer (not assigned) var. ‘amethionina,’ and several Candida spp. (Velázquez et al. 2006; González et al. 2007; Ruiz-Montiel et al. 2008).

MICROORGANISMS ASSOCIATED WITH AGAVE BUD ROT

Several species of bacteria associated with agave bud rot have been reported. Vélez et al. (1996) isolated Erwinia sp. of the Carotovora group from A. tequilana. Later, Martínez-Ramírez (2011) confirmed that E. carotovora is the causal agent of soft rot in A. tequilana. Additionally, other microorganisms have been associated with the rot in A. tequilana, such as E. cacticida, P. agglomerans, Pseudomonas sp., Bacillus pumilis (Bacillaceae), Arthrobacter (Micrococcaceae) sp., Streptomyces (Streptomycetaceae) sp., and the fungus Fusarium oxysporum Schltdl. (Nectriaceae) (Rodríguez 1999; Espinosa-Paz et al. 2005; Jiménez-Hidalgo et al. 2004; Rincón-Enríquez et al. 2014).

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SCYPHOPHORUS ACUPUNCTATUS

INSECTS

Natural biological suppression of S. acupunctatus results from the activities of several parasitic and predatory insects, as well as insect pathogens. For example, Martínez et al. (2003) and Velázquez et al. (2006) noted the importance of 2 parasitoids, Cyclaulacidea sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Alienoclypeus insolitus Shenefelt (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), and Velázquez et al. (2006) reported 4 predators, Hololepta quadridentata F. (Coleoptera: Histeridae), Phileurus valgus Olivier (Coleoptera: Dynastidae), Ectatomma ruidum Roger (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), and Odontomachus bauri Emery (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). According to Velázquez et al. (2006), Cyclaulacidea sp. was only detected in 3 S. acupunctatus pupae out of 76 collected (3.9% parasitism) and in 2 pupae out of 86 (2.3% parasitism). The genus Cyclaulacidea occurs naturally from central Mexico to southern South America (Velázquez et al. 2006), but evidently does not provide high levels of parasitism. The ants E. ruidum and O. bauri attack S. acupunctatus larvae (Velázquez et al. 2006). Ectatomma ruidum is omnivorous and feeds on arthropods and honeydew secretions (Fernández 1991).

PATHOGENS

The fungus Beauveria bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. (Cordycipitaceae) applied in laboratory assays at a concentration of 2.12 × 107 spores per mL caused higher mortality of adult weevils (86.6 ± 12%) compared to the fungi Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschn.) Sorokīn (Clavicipitaceae) and Isaria fumosorosea Wize (Cordycipitaceae). Beauveria bassiana, M. anisopliae, and I. fumosorosea-treated insects that perished following treatment developed external fungal growth and sporulated on both adults and larvae regardless of the spore concentration (Gkounti et al. 2015). Beauveria bassiana infection results in a white, powdery, or cottony growth that sometimes completely envelops the insect (Velázquez et al. 2006). This widespread entomopathogenic fungus affects numerous insects, principally Coleoptera, but its effectiveness is affected by environmental conditions (Alves 1986).

In one study in the field and in the laboratory, 3 nematodes were evaluated to determine their pathogenicity to S. acupunctatus (as S. interstitialis): Steinernema carpocapsae Weisser (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), Steinernema feltiae Filipjev (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), and Heterorhabditis bacteriphora Poinar (Rhabditida: Heterorhabdidae). Under laboratory conditions, the nematodes killed 100% of larvae in all treatments, 24 d after inoculation. In adults, the nematodes reduced between 70 to 100% of the population of insects at 60 d. Under field conditions, the percent reduction in the population of adult weevils was 52 to 89% (Aquino-Bolaños et al. 2006).

PLANTS

Plants contain many bioactive chemicals that have potential to be used as botanical insecticides. Extracts of Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae), Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae), and Tagetes erecta L. (Asteraceae) at controlled conditions caused 43 to 53% mortality in S. acupunctatus larvae, whereas extracts of Prosopis laevigata (Willd.) M. C. Johnst. (Fabaceae), Bursera grandifolia (Schltdl.) Engl. (Burseraceae), Chenopodium ambrosioides L. (Amaranthaceae), and Tagetes erecta L. (Asteraceae) caused less than 26% larval mortality. The 3 extracts that produced the greatest weight reduction in larvae at 12 d were from A. sativum, A. mexicana, and P. laevigata. The lowest mean larval weights at 12 and 24 d were associated with A. sativum extract. Significant effects of plant extracts on weight of both pupae and adults were observed for nearly all extracts. Extracts from T. erecta, P. laevigata, A. sativum, B. grandifolia, C. ambrosioides, T. erecta, and A. mexicana also caused mortality of pupae (3–15%; Valdés-Estrada et al. 2016).

The seed powders of Trichilia havanensis Jacq. (Meliaceae), Annona cherimola Mill. (Annonaceae), and Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae) were evaluated for their ability to produce mortality and growth inhibition in S. acupunctatus. Seeds of T. havanensis and C. papaya at 15% were very toxic to S. acupunctatus, causing 100 and 90% larval mortality, respectively, whereas seed powder of A. cherimola killed 63% of the weevils. All powders inhibited the growth of the insect in vitro. Annona cherimola was most effective, decreasing the weight of larvae, pupae, and adults by 98.5, 40.6, and 45.0%, respectively (Valdés-Estrada et al. 2014). The results obtained in the laboratory with plant extracts and seed powder show the possibility of applying them in field conditions without seriously affecting the environment because they are derived from natural products.

Pacheco-Sánchez et al. (2012), tried Ricinus communis extracts to control Scyphophorus acupunctatus in bioassays conducted in the laboratory. They concluded that these extracts are not very toxic to adult weevils, but they do have an effect on weevil weight. According to Pacheco-Sánchez et al. (2012) the extract possibly was not able to penetrate into the insect and, therefore, did not have a toxic effect, even though acetone was used as a solvent, and organic solvents normally facilitate penetration of insecticides into the insect cuticle. Or perhaps the molecules evaluated penetrated, but did not have a toxic effect on the weevils.

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF SCYPHOPHORUS ACUPUNCTATUS

Synthetic insecticides are the principal tactic for the elimination of S. acupunctatus currently. The insecticides malathion, endosulfan, methomyl, and fipronil have shown to provide 98 to 100% suppression. In contrast, other materials such as the insecticides cypermethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, deltamethrin, and beta-cyfluthrin are less effective (12% to 47%). The lack of control of S. acupunctatus can be attributed to the use of insecticides in the pyrethroids toxicological group. However, it is recommended that these be used in rotation with different insecticides classes, with different mechanisms of activity, or in conjunction with other alternatives, such as food attractants, entomopathogenic fungi, and aggregation pheromones, to obtain better control of S. acupunctatus under field conditions (Terán-Vargas et al. 2012). Also, the control of S. acupunctatus with insecticides applied directly to the plants can be difficult because the larvae are located in tunnels inside the plant (Valdez et al. 2004).

Overall, S. acupunctatus (agave weevil) is a very important factor in the survival of plants in the genus Agave. The incidence of weevils in agaves may exceed 90% in some communities in Mexico. Unfortunately, the presence of weevils often is observed only after insect infestation has occurred. The principal damage is caused by the feeding of the larvae, and the microorganisms associated with it. In addition to mechanical damage by feeding, this insect facilitates infection with phytopathogens, and causes putrescence. Presently, neither biological nor chemical control methods have shown significant efficacy for control of this pest. However, it is necessary to develop new methods to prevent the occurrence of the insect in plantations and to protect this economically important industry.

Acknowledgment

We are grateful to the Consejo de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación de Hidalgo (CITNOVA) for the support.

References Cited

1.

Alves S. 1986. Controle microbiano de insetos. Editora Manole. Sáo Paulo, Brazil. Google Scholar

2.

Anderson WH. 1948. Larvae of some genera of Calendrinae (= Rhynchophorinae) and Stromboscerinae. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 41: 413–437. Google Scholar

3.

Aquino-Bolaños T, Ipaguirre CM, Ruiz VJ. 2007. Schyphophorus acupunctactus (= interstitialis) Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Plaga del agave mezcalero: pérdidas y daños en Oaxaca, México. Revista UDO Agrícola 7: 175–180. Google Scholar

4.

Aquino-Bolaños T, Vega JR, Iparraguirre CM. 2006. Biological control of the black weevil (Scyphophorus interstitialis Gyllenhal) with entomophatogenic nematodes and fungi in agave in Oaxaca, México. Revista UDO Agrícola 6: 92–101. Google Scholar

5.

Beltrán GMC. 2005. El picudo Scyphophorus acupunctatus Ghyll. (Coleoptera: Curculionadae) y su microbiota asociada al tejido dañado de Agave tequilana Weber var. Azul. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis. Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco, México. Google Scholar

6.

Bravo ME. 2003. Sugerencias para el manejo integrado del picudo del maguey mezcalero Scyphophorus intertitialis Gyllenhal. INIFAP. Folleto Técnico No 4. Oaxaca, México. Google Scholar

7.

Cedeño M. 1995. Tequila producción. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology 15: 1–11. Google Scholar

8.

Chamorro ML, Persson J, Torres-Santana CW, Keularts J, Scheffer SJ, Lewis ML. 2016. Molecular and morphological tools to distinguish Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal, 1838 (Curculionidae: Dryophthorinae): a new weevil pest of the endangered century plant, Agave eggersiana from St. Croix, US Virgin Islands. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 118: 218–243. Google Scholar

9.

Cotton RT. 1924. A contribution toward the classification of the weevil larvae of the subfamily Calendrinae, occurring in North America. Proceedings of the United States National Museum 66: 1–11. Google Scholar

10.

CRT (Consejo Regulador del Tequila [Tequila Regulatory Council]). 2009. Innovación y desarrollo tecnológico para el crecimiento sustentable de la cadena productiva Agave-Tequila. Seminario Internacional sobre indicaciones geográficas, 5–6 Nov 2009, Zapopan, Jalisco, Mex. Available at:  http://www.crt.org.mx (last accessed 1 May 2018). Google Scholar

11.

DGSV-CNRF (Dirección General de Sanidad Vegetal-Centro Nacional de Referencia Fitosanitaria). 2017. Pudrición blanda del cogollo del Agave. Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. Carotovorum. SAGARPA-SENASICA (Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería, Desarrollo Rural, Pesca y Alimentación- Servicio Nacional de Sanidad, Inocuidad y Calidad Agroalimentaria). Tecamac, Estado de Mexico, México. Google Scholar

12.

Domínguez RM, González JM, Rosales GC, Quiñones VC, Delgadillo DS, Mireles OS, Pérez MB. 2008. El cultivo in vitro como herramienta para el provechamiento, mejoramiento y conservación de especies del género Agave. Investigación y Ciencia 16: 53–62. Google Scholar

13.

EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization). 2014. PQR database. European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization, Paris, France.  http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm (last accessed 1 May 2018. Google Scholar

14.

Erlwein S, Mira TJR, Velasco PA. 2009. Proceso de elaboración del pulque, su importancia económica y concepción social en Apan, Hidalgo. Ejercicios Etnográficos, Aprendiendo a Investigar 1: 59–104. Google Scholar

15.

Espinosa-Paz H, Bravo-Mosqueda E, López-López P, Arredondo-Velásquez C. 2005. Manejo integrado de plagas del maguey mezcalero, pp 4–49 In Espinosa-Paz H, Bravo-Mosqueda E, López-López P, Arredondo-Velásquez C [eds.], El Agave Mezcalero de Oaxaca. Nova Color, Oaxaca, México. Google Scholar

16.

Fernández F. 1991. Las hormigas cazadoras del género Ectatomma (Formicidae: Ponerinae) en Colombia. Caldasia 16: 551–564. Google Scholar

17.

Figueroa-Castro P. 2009. Fluctuación poblacional y trampeo de Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) con feromona de agregación en plantaciones de agave tequilero en Jalisco. M.S. Dissertation. Graduate Studies in Vegetal Protection. Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, Chapingo, Texcoco, Mexico. Google Scholar

18.

Figueroa-Castro P, González-Hernández H, Carrillo-Sánchez JL, del Real-Laborde JI, Solís-Aguilar JF, Rojas JC. 2015. Ambos sexos de Scyphophorus acupunctatus (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae) pueden iniciar la colonización de la planta de agave (Asparagaceae). Acta Zoológica Mexicana (n. s.) 31: 495–497. Google Scholar

19.

Figueroa-Castro P, López-Martínez V, Hernández-Ruiz A, Silva-García F, Campos-Figueroa M. 2016. Determining the best pheromone-baited traps for capturing Scyphophorus acupunctatus (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae) in mezcal agave. Florida Entomologist 99: 790–792. Google Scholar

20.

Figueroa-Castro P, Solís-Aguilar JF, González-Hernández H, Rubio-Cortés R, Herrera-Navarro EG, Castillo-Márquez LE, Rojas JC. 2013. Population dynamics of Scyphophorus acupunctatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on blue agave. Florida Entomologist 96: 1454–1462. Google Scholar

21.

Fucikovsky L. 2001. “Tristeza” and death of Agave tequilana Weber var. Blue, pp. 359–361 In De Boer SH [ed.], Plant Pathogenic Bacteria. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Plant Pathogenic Bacteria, Kluwer Academic Publishing. Dordrecht, Netherlands. Google Scholar

22.

García HEJ, Gallegos MSJ, Magaña DT. 2010. El género Agave spp. en México: principales usos de importancia socioeconómica y agroecológica. Revista Salud Pública y Nutrición 5: 109–129. Google Scholar

23.

García MA, Galván R. 1995. Riqueza de las familias Agavaceae y Nolinaceae en México. Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de México 56: 7–24. Google Scholar

24.

Gkounti VTG, Markoyiannaki D, Kontodimas DC. 2015. Pathogenicity of indigenous strains of three entomopathogenic fungi to the sisal weevil, Scyphophorus acupunctatus (Gyllenhal) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Hellenic Plant Protection Journal 8: 46–54. Google Scholar

25.

Gold C, Messiaen S. 2000. El picudo negro del banano Cosmopolites sordidus. Hoja Divulgativa 4: 1–4. Google Scholar

26.

González H, Solís JF, Pacheco C, Flores FJ, Rubio R, Rojas de León JC. 2007. Insectos barrenadores del Agave tequilero , pp. 39–78 In González H, del Real JI, Solís JF [eds.], Manejo de Plagas del Agave Tequilero. Jalisco, México. Google Scholar

27.

Halffter G. 1956. Plagas que afectan a las distintas especies de Agave cultivadas en México. Dirección General de la Defensa Agrícola. SAG (Secretaria de Agricultura y Ganaderia). Distrito Federal, Mexico. Google Scholar

28.

Harris WV. 1936. The sisal weevil. East Africa Agricultural and Forestry Journal 2: 114–126. Google Scholar

29.

Huxman TE, Huxman KA, Stamer MR. 1997. Dispersal characteristics of yucca weevil (Schyphophorus yuccae) in flowering field of Yucca whipplei. Great Basin Naturalist 57: 38–43. Google Scholar

30.

Jiménez-Hidalgo I, Virgen-Calleros G, Martínez-de la Vega O, Vandemark G, Olalde-Portugal V. 2004. Identification and characterization of bacteria causing soft-rot in Agave tequilana. European Journal of Plant Pathology 110: 317–331. Google Scholar

31.

Kalshoven LGE. 1981. Pests of Crops in Indonesia. CABI, Jakarta, Indonesia. Google Scholar

32.

Llanderal-Cázares C, De los Santos-Posadas HM, Almanza-Valenzuela I, Nieto-Hernández R, Castillejos-Cruz C. 2010. Establecimiento del gusano rojo en plantas de maguey en invernadero. Acta Zoológica Mexicana 26: 5–31. Google Scholar

33.

Lock GW. 1957. Notes on fibre agaves. Bulletin Kenya Sisal Board 22: 16–17. Google Scholar

34.

Magallán HF, Hernández SL. 2000. La familia Agavaceae en el estado de Querétaro. Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de México 66 103–112. Google Scholar

35.

Martínez ML, Bravo ME, Arce GF, Sánchez GJA. 2003. Biología de Alienoclypeus insolitus Shenefelt (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) parasitoide del picudo del maguey, pp. 336–339 In Memoria XXVI Congreso Nacional de Control Biológico, Sociedad Mexicana de Control Biológico, 3–8 Nov 2003, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. Google Scholar

36.

Martínez-Ramírez JL. 2011. Evolución histórica y situación actual de la pudrición del cogollo en el cultivo del agave azul tequilero, pp. 35–44 In Briceño-Félix GA, Hurtado de la Peña S, Díaz-Mederos P, Pérez-Mejía FA [eds.], 1er Foro de Discusión Fitosanitaria en el Cultivo del Agave Azul Tequilero, Integrando Esfuerzos para Impulsar Bienestar en el Sector. 31 May–1 Jun 2011, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. Google Scholar

37.

Molina MD. 2013. Contribución al conocimiento de la distribución actual de la especie invasora Scyphophorus acupunctactus Gyllenhal, 1838 (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae) en la Península Ibérica. Revista Gaditana de Entomología 4: 11–16. Google Scholar

38.

Nikam TD. 1997. High frequency shoot regeneration in Agave sisalana. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture 51: 225–228. Google Scholar

39.

O'Brien CW, Wibmer GJ. 1982. Annoted checklist of the weevils (Curculionidae sensu lato) of North America, Central América, and the West Indies (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). No. 34. The American Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA. Google Scholar

40.

Pacheco-Sánchez C, Villa-Ayala P, Montes-Belmont R, Figueroa-Brito R, Jiménez-Pérez A. 2012. Effect of Ricinus communis extracts on weight and mortality of Scyphophorus acupunctatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). International Journal of Applied Science and Technology 2: 83–94. Google Scholar

41.

Rafael-Valdez J, Tarango-Arambula LA, Ugalde-Lezama S, Lozano-Cavazos EA, Ruíz-Vera VM, Bravo-Vinaja Á. 2017. Foraging and nesting substrates of the escamolera ant (Liometopum apiculatum Mayr; Himenoptera: Formicidae) in Villa Gonzalez Ortega, Zacatecas, Mexico. Agrociencia 51: 755–769. Google Scholar

42.

Ramírez CJL. 1993. Max del Henequen Scyphophorus interstitialis Gil. bioecologia y control. Libro Técnico, INIFAP (Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agricolas y Pecuarias), Merida, Yucatan, Mexico. Google Scholar

43.

Ramirez-Choza JL. 1978a. Advances in the biology of the agave pest Scyphophorus interstitialis, under laboratory conditions. Informe Técnico de la Coordinación Nacional del Apoyo Entomológico 3: 79–83. Google Scholar

44.

Ramirez-Choza JL. 1978b. Natural attractants for the henequen weevil Schyphophorus interstitialis Gylh. Agricultura Técnica en México 4: 167–179. Google Scholar

45.

Riba I Flinch JM, Alonso-Zarazaga MA. 2007. El picudo negro de la pita o agave, o max del henequén, Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal, 1838 (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae): primera cita para la Península Ibérica. Boletín de la Sociedad Entomológica Aragonesa 41: 19–422. Google Scholar

46.

Rincón-Enríquez G, Quiñones-Aguilar E, Qui-Zapata J, Vega-Ramos K, Uvalle-Bueno J. 2014. Selección de bacteriófagos para el control biológico del agente causal de la pudrición del Agave tequilana. Revista Mexicana de Fitopatología 32: 160–161. Google Scholar

47.

Rodríguez G. 1999. La investigación en agave tequilero en el CIATEJ, pp. 2–3 In Bernache P, Avalos AC [eds.], El Agave. Union Agricola Regional de Mezcal Tequilero del Estado de Jalisco. Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. Google Scholar

48.

Rojas JC, González H, Ruiz CM, Rangel DNR, Ceja EI, García GC, del Real IL. 2006. Optimización de un sistema de monitoreo/Trampeo masivo para el manejo del picudo del agave, (Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal), pp. 51–58 In JF Barera, P Montoya [eds.], Simposio Sobre Trampas y Atrayentes en Detección, Monitoreo y Control de Plagas de Importancia Económica. Sociedad Mexicana de Entomología y el Colegio de la Frontera Sur. Tapachula, Chiapas, México. Google Scholar

49.

Rubio-Cortes R. 2007. Enfermedades del cultivo de agave, pp. 169–195 In Rulfo-Vilchis O, Pérez-Domínguez JF, del Real-Laborde JI, Byerly-Murphy KF [eds.], Conocimiento y Prácticas para la Producción de Agave tequilana Weber en la Zona de Denominación de Origen del Tequila. INIFAP (Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agricolas y Pecuarias), Jalisco, Mexico. Google Scholar

50.

Ruiz-Montiel C, Garcia-Coapio G, Rojas JC, Malo EA, Cruz-Lopez L, del Real I. Gonzalez-Hernandez H. 2008. Aggregation pheromone of Scyphophorus acupunctatus (Coleoptera: Curculuonidae). Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 127: 207–217. Google Scholar

51.

Ruvalcaba MJ. 1983. El maguey manso. Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, Ciudad de México, México. Google Scholar

52.

SAGARPA (Secretaria de Agricultura, Ganadería, Desarrollo Rural, Pesca y Alimentación). 2017. Reporte técnico. Comité estatal de sanidad vegetal de Guanajuato.  http://www.cesaveg.org.mx/html/folletos/folletos_08/folleto_agave_08.pdf (last accessed 15 Nov 2017). Google Scholar

53.

SAGARPA (Secretaria de Agricultura, Ganadería, Desarrollo Rural, Pesca y Alimentación). 2010.  http://www.sagarpa.org.mx (last accessed on 1 May 2018). Google Scholar

54.

Schwencke EH. 1934. A new injury to sisal in East Africa. Tropenpflanzer 37: 322–325. Google Scholar

55.

Servín R, Tejas A, Arce MM, Robert ML. 2006. Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) como potencial insecto-plaga de Yucca valida Brandegee en Baja California Sur, México. Folia Entomológica Mexicana 45: 1–7. Google Scholar

56.

Setliff GP, Anderson JA. 2011. First record of the agave snout weevil, Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidade: Dryophthorinae), in Puerto Rico. Insecta Mundi 0152: 1–3. Google Scholar

57.

SIAP (Servicio de Información Agrícola y Pesquera). 2017. Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera. Ciclo agrícola 2014.  http://www.siap.gob.mx/cierrede-la-produccion-agricola-por-cultivo/ (last accessed 17 Nov 2017). Google Scholar

58.

Siller-Jasso MG. 1985. Ciclo biológico en el laboratorio del picudo del maguey Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyll (Coleóptera: Curculionidae) y algunas consideraciones sobre su impacto económico. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Distrito Federal, Mexico. Google Scholar

59.

Smith GF, Figueiredo E, Klopper RR, Crouch NR, Janion C, Chown SL. 2012. A new specific plant host for the agave snout weevil, Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal, 1838 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in South Africa: a destructive pest of species of Agave L. (Agavaceae). Bradleya 30: 19–24. Google Scholar

60.

Solís-Aguilar JF. 2001. El picudo del agave tequilero Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllehhal (Coleóptera: Curculionidae) en Jalisco, México. Doctoral Dissertation. Instituto de Fitosanidad, Programa de Entomología y Acarología, Colegio de postgraduados. Montecillo, Jalisco, Mexico. Google Scholar

61.

Solís-Aguilar JF, González HH, Leyva VJL, Equihua MA, Flores MFJ, Martínez GA. 2001. Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal, plaga del agave tequilero en Jalisco, México. Agrociencia 35: 663–670. Google Scholar

62.

Terán-Vargas AP, Azuara-Domínguez A. 2013. El picudo Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal y su manejo en el agave tequilero (Agave tequilana F.A.C. Weber) variedad azul. Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias. Centro de Investigación Regional del Noreste Campo Experimental Las Huastecas. Folleto Técnico 1. Ciudad de Mexico (antes Distrito Federal), México. Google Scholar

63.

Terán-Vargas AP, Azuara-Domínguez A, Vega-Aquino P, Zambrano-Gutiérrez J, Blanco-Montero C. 2012. Biological effectivity of insecticides to control the agave weevil, Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), in Mexico. Southwestern Entomologist 37: 47–53. Google Scholar

64.

Valdés-Estrada ME, Hernández RMC, Gutiérrez OM, Aldana LL. 2010. Determination of the life cycle of Schyphophorus acupunctactus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) under laboratory conditions. Florida Entomologist 93: 398–402. Google Scholar

65.

Valdés-Estrada ME, Aldana-Llanos L, Hernández-Reyes MC, Gutiérrez-Ochoa M, Figueroa-Brito R. 2014. Toxicity of vegetable powders on Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) larvae. Southwestern Entomologist 39: 595–599. Google Scholar

66.

Valdés-Estrada ME, Aldana-Llanos L, Salinas-Sánchez DO, Figueroa-Brito R, Hernández-Reyes MC, Valladares-Cisneros MG. 2016. Toxicity of plant extracts to Scyphophorus acupunctatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Florida Entomologist 99: 226–230. Google Scholar

67.

Valdés-Rodríguez S, Ramírez-Choza JL, Reyes-López J, Blanco-Labra A. 2004. Respuestas del insecto Max (Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal [Coleoptera: Curculionidae]) hacia algunos compuestos atrayentes del henequén. Acta Zoológica Mexicana 20: 157–166. Google Scholar

68.

Valentine HT. 1983. Nutritional changes in host foliage during and after defoliation and their relation to the weight of gypsy moth pupae. Oecologia 57: 298–306. Google Scholar

69.

Van Rossem G, Van de Bund CF, Burguer HC, de Goffau LJW. 1981. Bijizondere aantastingen door insekten in 1980. Entomologische Berichten 41: 84–87. Google Scholar

70.

Vassilis V, Pavlos K. 2015. First record of the sisal weevil, Scyphophorus acupunctatus, in Cyprus. Entomologia Hellenica 24: 1–5. Google Scholar

71.

Vaurie P. 1971. Review of Scyphophorus (Curculionidae: Rhynchophorinae). The Coleopterists Bulletin 25: 1–8. Google Scholar

72.

Velázquez J, Joly LJ, García JL, Romero Y, González M, Medina M. 2006. Enemigos naturales del “Picudo del Agave” Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) en el estado Falcón, Venezuela. Entomotropica 21: 185–193. Google Scholar

73.

Velázquez J, Joly LJ, Tremont J. 2006. Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal, 1938 (Coleoptera: Curculionadae), plaga del cocuy (Agave cocuy Trelease), en el estado Falcón, Venezuela. Entomotropica 21: 181–183. Google Scholar

74.

Vélez GC, Álvarez CRGB. 1996. Aislamiento de Erwinia del grupo carotovora como patógeno de Agave tequilana. Abstract XXIII Congreso Nacional de la Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. Google Scholar

75.

Waring GL, Smith RL. 1986. Natural history and ecology of Scyphophorus acupunctatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and its associated microbes in cultivated and native agaves. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 79: 334–340. Google Scholar
Jaime Alioscha Cuervo-Parra, Victor Hugo Pérez-España, Pablo Antonio López Pérez, Mario Alberto Morales-Ovando, Oscar Arce-Cervantes, José Esteban Aparicio-Burgos, and Teresa Romero-Cortes "Scyphophorus acupunctatus (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae): A Weevil Threatening the Production of Agave in Mexico," Florida Entomologist 102(1), 1-9, (11 April 2019). https://doi.org/10.1653/024.102.0101
Published: 11 April 2019
KEYWORDS
agave
agave weevil
mescal
pulque
Tequila
Back to Top