This paper represents the first ultrastructural descriptions of the cloacal glands of a male salamander. All male salamanders in the suborder Salamandroidea possess these glands, which are required for internal fertilization. These glands are responsible for producing spermatophores and, in some species, certain glands produce female-attracting pheromones. Both scanning and transmission electron microscopy provided higher resolution and magnification of the cytology of cloacal glands than possible in previous studies limited to light microscopy. The glands are hypertrophied in October and April samples, and much reduced in size and secretory activity in June and August samples. Each of the cloacal glands, when active, has secretory vacuoles that are unique in appearance and that secrete carbohydrates and/or proteins. Kingsbury's glands are modified mucous glands that have secretory vacuoles filled with a flocculent substance. Active pelvic glands have uniform electron-lucent secretory vacuoles that fill the cytoplasm and narrow the lumen. Ventral glands have squamous epithelium with moderately dense vacuoles scattered around the apical border, and a granular secretion that fills the wide lumen. In the breeding season, vent glands have biphasic secretory vacuoles characteristic of glycoproteins. All glands release their products by a merocrine process, and all have myoepithelial sheaths, which are best developed in ventral glands. Future research should focus on differences in cytology among the pheromone producing glands and comparisons with the ventral glands in salamander clades that do not produce spermatophores (e.g., Hynobiidae and Cryptobranchidae).

We report a detailed account of the structure and dynamics of five populations of Ringed Salamanders (Ambystoma annulatumCope, 1886) in Missouri, USA, studied over a 4-yr period. The average date of capture for breeding males varied from 30 August to 2 October, and average date of capture for breeding females varied from 9 September to 7 October. The sex ratio was consistently male biased and averaged 2.05 males to each female. The smallest breeding female was 77 mm snout–vent length ([SVL]; mean = 96.3 mm) and the smallest breeding male was 66 mm SVL (mean = 94.2 mm). Eggs and larvae were present in September and October each year, and the larval period varied from 7 to 9 mo. Juveniles metamorphosed in all years in every pond, albeit in low numbers (6–631). The mean SVL of metamorphosing juveniles among all years and ponds was 39.2 mm. Intra-annual body size of emerging juveniles declined over time; juveniles that metamorphosed early were larger in body size than those metamorphosing later in the summer. Production of juveniles per female averaged 0.76 (range, 0.056–2.929), and survival of juveniles from egg to metamorphosis averaged 0.2% (range, 0.01%–0.75%). Both females and males can reach reproductive maturity at 1 yr of age, but most return at 2–3 yr of age. Management of the Ringed Salamander must focus on all life-history stages; protecting the aquatic stage to maximize the number and fitness of metamorphosing juveniles, managing the terrestrial habitat to maximize survival to first reproduction, and monitoring connectivity to promote metapopulation dynamics.

Many recent amphibian studies have involved marking individuals using visible implant elastomer (VIE), but the effects of VIE on the movements or survival of amphibians in the wild are unknown. Our aim was to determine if VIE marking influenced the movement distances and survival rates of Common Mistfrogs (Litoria rheocola) in the wild over the 3-wk period following application when effects from handling and marking might be strongest. We used harmonic direction finding to track adult frogs that were either unmarked or marked with VIE, and compared their movement distances, probability of movement, and survival estimates. To account for any effects of the external tracking tags on frog survival, we also estimated survival rates for frogs that were not tracked, but were marked and recaptured at the same site during the same time period. We found no effects of VIE marking on distances moved by frogs or the probability of movement. For tracked frogs, estimated daily survival rates for marked frogs were slightly, but not significantly, higher than those for unmarked frogs. Estimated survival rates were similar between marked frogs that were tracked and marked frogs that were not tracked, suggesting that tracking tags did not influence survival during our study. Of tracked frogs, individuals that were marked had 12.4% higher recapture rates than unmarked individuals. Overall, we found that VIE had minimal effects on movements and survival of frogs over the 3-wk period immediately after marking.

Amphibians are facing extinctions worldwide as a result of numerous factors. Habitat alteration has long been implicated in the loss of biodiversity; however, we still do not know how different animal assemblages respond to habitat alteration. To investigate the impacts of anthropogenic habitat alteration on diversity, we studied amphibian assemblages across different habitats in the Chocó rainforest of northwest Ecuador. Amphibian diversity was estimated using intensive surveys along transects in primary and altered (historically logged) forest and riparian habitats, as well as along roads with varying levels of ongoing human activity. Our results suggest an interaction between habitat type and alteration on the diversity and composition of amphibian assemblages. Amphibian assemblages along rivers were the richest as well as the least impacted by habitat alteration. In addition, riparian zones harbored amphibian assemblages distinct from other habitat types, including rare and endangered species. Diversity and species richness were lower in secondary than in primary forest, suggesting that amphibian assemblages in interior forest habitat may be more vulnerable to alterations caused by logging. These findings suggest that amphibian assemblages in different habitat types (i.e., riparian vs. interior forest) may vary in vulnerability to habitat alteration. We discuss these findings in relation to land management plans that promote amphibian diversity in northwest Ecuador and recognize a good potential indicator species, Oophaga sylvatica, for identifying pristine habitat.

The Brown Anole (Anolis sagrei) is a polymorphic species, with females often exhibiting one of three distinct pattern morphs. Efforts to correlate female-limited pattern polymorphism in anoles to ecological or physiological factors have largely been unsuccessful, with such correlations being either inconsistent among species or among populations of a single species. To test the hypothesis that morph types would differ in their response to putative predators, we observed escape behavior in 84 female A. sagrei from Cape Eleuthera (Eleuthera, Bahamas) and tested 103 females for sprint speed. We found differences between morph types in hindlimb span and perch height. Differences in sprint speed were not significant, nor did morphs differ in escape responses. We suggest further studies to determine whether differences between morphs in hindlimb span are genetic or plastic, and, if plastic, what factor might be responsible. We conclude that perching at different heights could be selectively advantageous for different morph types, and that differences among individuals in sprint speed are largely consequences of hindlimb length. Because morphs in this population did not differ in escape responses, we suggest that different dorsal patterns are not linked to specific behaviors that could reduce detection by a potential predator.

We monitored ultraviolet-B (UVB) irradiance exposure (measured using the ultraviolet index [UVI]) of the Western Sagebrush Lizard (Sceloporus graciosus gracilis) in Lassen Volcanic National Park, California, and the related Dunes Sagebrush Lizard (S. arenicolus) in eastern New Mexico. For S. graciosus gracilis, on sunny days between 0900 and 1100 h, average lizard UVI tracked available solar UVI. Periodic shade-seeking between 1100 and 1600 h resulted in lizard UVI being less than the available solar UVI. This daily pattern of exposure was evident for the activity period from June until August. This general pattern was also evident for S. arenicolus except when air temperatures exceeded 37°C; at these times, all S. arenicolus subjects retreated underground for much of the afternoon. Individuals of S. graciosus gracilis exhibited large within-day variations in the durations of time that they basked in full sun, sought shade, and retreated underground. Two lizards followed for most of a day showed very different patterns of UVI exposure, yet the calculated daily UVB dose (irradiance × time) was similar for both individuals. Some, but not all, S. graciosus gracilis periodically retreated underground during their daily activity; retreat was more frequent and UVI exposure more intense on a cooler day at the California study site.

Common Kingsnakes (formerly known collectively as Lampropeltis getula) are experiencing localized declines throughout the southeastern United States. Because there have been limited studies to determine how snakes regulate prey populations, and because Kingsnake declines may result in ecosystem impacts, we evaluated the hypothesis that Kingsnakes regulate the abundance of one of their prey, the venomous Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix). We generated a database of captures of the two species across the southeastern United States and, while controlling for large-scale habitat preferences, identified a negative relationship between the relative abundance of Kingsnakes and the relative abundance of Copperheads. Our results are correlative but consistent with the hypothesis that Copperhead populations experience a release from predation pressure where Kingsnake abundances are low. We suggest that Kingsnake declines, which are occurring for unknown reasons, are having ecological effects in affected ecosystems. We further highlight the potential role that snakes play in influencing the population dynamics of their prey.

We describe a new species of Pseudopaludicola endemic to the Caatinga ecoregion of northeastern Brazil. The new species is characterized morphologically by small size, lack of T-shape terminal phalanges, smooth upper eyelids, presence of abdominal and vocal sac folds, light cream-colored vocal sac, and short hind limbs with tibia–tarsal articulation reaching the eye. The tadpole has a globular body shape, low tail fins, and a ventral oral disc bordered by a single row of marginal papillae with a wide anterior gap and two ventrolateral gaps; oral formula: 2(2)/2(1). The advertisement call consists of a well-defined sequence of notes comprising three nonconcatenated pulses, each with long interpulse intervals (111 ± 21 ms) and average note duration of 238 ± 31 ms. The mean dominant frequency is 5636 ± 300 Hz, and increases from the first to the last pulse in each note. The advertisement call easily distinguishes the new species from all other congeners for which calls are known.

A new species of brachycephalid frog is described from the highlands of the Atlantic Forest in Serra do Mar, municipality of Cunha, São Paulo State, southeastern Brazil. Specimens were collected amidst the leaf litter at approximately 920 m above sea level. The new species is distinguished from all of its congeners by the combination of the following characters: snout–vent length 9.5–15.6 mm; rough dorsum; general background color orange with a variable density of whitish spots on dorsum; skin on head and dorsum granular with dermal ossification; skull, spinal processes of sacral and presacral vertebrae, and process of the fourth vertebra hyperossified; absence of hyperossification in the central portion of the skull; dorsal surface of body covered by osteoderms. The new species was found active by day and is locally abundant. Males hold territories during the reproductive season. Females had few mature oocytes during the same period. The advertisement call of B. crispus is a long and low-intensity buzz with a regular repetition of notes.

The genus Leptopelis is composed of 51 morphologically conserved anurans which are found throughout sub-Saharan Africa. We describe a new species of Leptopelis from the Itombwe Plateau, a renowned center of endemism in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The new species is included in a well-supported polytomy with populations of the widespread Albertine Rift-endemic Leptopelis karissimbensis. We recognize the new species based on DNA sequence divergence and distinctive components of morphological, ecological, and advertisement call data. The distinct calls between the recently diverged new species and the partially sympatric taxon L. karissimbensis are a likely consequence of reinforcement of species boundaries. Our recognition of the new species emphasizes the endemism and biodiversity of the Itombwe Plateau, a portion of which recently became protected as a natural reserve, but multiple anthropogenic threats are a continued cause for concern.