Birds of prey encounter many injuries that make treatment a challenging process. These include electrocution, trauma-associated cuts and abrasions, gunshot wounds, barbed wire and leghold trap ensnarement, puncture wounds, and damage from inappropriate housing and husbandry. The mechanism of wound healing is similar to that seen in mammals, with a continuous progression through the phases of inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. Healing by primary closure (suturing) is generally preferable to healing by secondary intention, though the latter is more common in raptors because of the delayed presentation of most wounds. Debridement and lavage, with chlorhexidine at a 0.05% solution being considered to provide optimal results, are required for all wounds. Many topical medications are used to manage open wounds in raptors, including recently developed wound-healing stimulants. Bandage materials used are the same as those used for other species, though the type of bandage varies according to the uniqueness of avian anatomy. Specific injuries such as bumblefoot, degloving, frostbite, digital amputation, and crop laceration may require special consideration.

Over the past 3 decades, increasing incidence of hepatic iron storage disease has been documented in captive birds, particularly associated with frugivorous species of the families Paradiseadae (birds of paradise), Ramphastidae (toucans), and Sturnidae (starlings). Hematology and serum biochemical analyses are of little diagnostic value for assessment of iron storage disease in birds. A liver biopsy is needed to confirm the condition antemortem; enlargement of the liver, heart, or spleen is often seen radiographically. Both a genetic predisposition for altered regulation of intestinal iron uptake in sensitive species, as well as dietary factors influencing iron metabolism, are considered important in understanding the development and management of this condition. Physiological mechanisms that may have evolved to compensate for a low bioavailability of dietary iron in situ appear to contribute to iron storage disease in managed feeding programs. Although dietary iron requirements of frugivorous species remain unknown, many practical diets contain higher iron concentrations of greater bioavailability compared with domestic poultry recommendations (50–120 mg/kg) due to specific ingredients and/or nutrient interactions in mixed diets=mthe latter including effects of other minerals, ascorbic acid, polyphenols, and specific sugars. Treatment of the disease includes phlebotomy, targeted iron chelation therapy, and diet alteration. Current recommendations for managing this multifactorial issue include: analysis of dietary iron and vitamin C concentrations, particularly those of iron-sensitive species; formulation of low iron diets; minimization or elimination of animal proteins in diets of frugivorous birds; ascorbic acid levels < 100 mg/kg and/or the feeding of vitamin C-containing foods separately. Further study of possible interactions among dietary sugars, minerals, natural chelators (for example tannins, fiber, phytates) and iron metabolism in avian species is encouraged.

A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, targeting a chromo-helicase DNA-binding protein (CHD) gene, was used to determine gender in birds. DNA from 87 birds, representing 31 species from 9 of the 20 orders of birds, was evaluated. The DNA was extracted from as little as 5 μ l of whole blood, and CHD-specific primers (P2 and P8) were used to amplify the CHD gene. Polymerase chain reaction products were then subjected to restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. Gender was determined by distinguishing between the female CHD-W gene and the male CHD-Z gene by agarose gel electrophoresis of the digested PCR products. The PCR assay using the HaeIII restriction enzyme helped identify gender in all species evaluated except those from the Order Anseriformes. Isolation of the CHD-Z and CHD-W fragments was performed, and the genes were cloned and sequenced in a number of waterfowl species. On the basis of sequence results for the CHD-Z and CHD-W genes for both the mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos) and the Canada goose (Branta canadensis), the cleavage site for the enzyme EcoRI was identified, and the lack of a cleavage site for HaeIII was confirmed. EcoRI was then used to sex 5 duck species and the Canada goose.

Medical records and necropsy reports of 410 pigeons and doves from the Zoological Society of San Diego were examined to determine if birds treated with fenbendazole (FBZ) or albendazole (ABZ) had a higher incidence of toxic-related signs than untreated control birds. Birds presented for nonmedical reasons (quarantine, relocation, preshipment examinations, and routine parasite screening) were used exclusively to avoid confounding variables. Birds were observed for 45 days after presentation. Compared with a 4–6% mean weight gain in control birds during the treatment period or hospitalization, birds treated with FBZ had a mean weight loss of 16.1% (P < .001), and birds treated with ABZ had a mean weight loss of 13.3% (P = .004). The percentage of birds with marked leukopenia (white blood cell < 1000/μ l) was higher in FBZ-treated birds (87.5%, P < .001) and ABZ-treated birds (100%, P = .013) than in control birds (12.5%). Bone marrow hypoplasia was found in FBZ-treated birds (48.6%, P < .001) and ABZ-treated birds (83.3%, P < .00l) but not in control birds (0%). Small intestinal crypt epithelial changes were not found in control birds but were identified in 35.1% of FBZ-treated birds (P < .001) and in 58.3% of ABZ-treated birds (P < .001). Percent survival was lower in FBZ-treated birds (55.9%, P < .001) and ABZ-treated birds (66.7%, P < .001) than in control birds (90%). Of the birds that died during observation, those treated with FBZ (mean 13.9 days, P < .001) and ABZ (mean 9.3 days, P < .001) had shorter average survival times after presentation than did control birds (mean 29.8 days). Fenbendazole effects appear to be dose related. Birds treated with 100 mg/kg of FBZ showed significantly greater mean weight loss (18.8%) and lower survival (14.8%) than did birds treated with 50 mg/kg of FBZ, with 8.3% weight loss (P = .005) and 75.4% survival (P < .00l). Of the birds that died during observation, those treated with 100 mg/kg of FBZ had shorter mean survival times after treatment (7.9 days) than did birds treated with 50 mg/kg of FBZ (23.9 days, P < .001). These findings are consistent with a toxic etiology and suggest that birds of the order Columbiformes are susceptible to toxicosis after FBZ or ABZ administration.

This study aimed to develop a technique of testicular aspiration and cytology for assessing the status of reproductive activity in small male birds with the swift parrot (Lathamus discolor) as a model species. To validate this technique, cytology was compared with testicular histology and seasonal variations in testicular volume in both wild and captive birds. The described technique of gonad examination and testicular aspiration and cytology was effective in tracking the seasonal variation in testicular volume and spermatogenesis in swift parrots; all 5 stages of spermatogenesis described histologically were identified. But testicular histology provided more information about the cellular architecture of the testes than was evident from cytology. Testicular aspiration and cytology was a reliable and safe technique for assessing the status of reproductive activity during the breeding season in small male parrots. The normal seasonal patterns of reproductive activity of male birds need to be understood for clinical assessment of the reproductive status.

A black-necked aracari (Pteroglossus aracaris) was presented for a beak injury in which one-fifth of the maxillary rhamphotheca was lost. A portion of a maxillary bill from a dead bird of the same species was used to replace the missing beak of the injured bird. The bird recovered from surgery and did well for 3 months, after which it died during a yersiniosis outbreak. A channel-billed toucan (Ramphastos vitellinus) was treated similarly, but the beak of a different toucan species was used. This patient was observed for 2 months after surgery.

Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia occurs infrequently in poultry and is undocumented in parrots. In this study, we describe a blue-crowned conure (Aratinga acuticaudata) with a strongly regenerative anemia, a predominance of round, small erythrocytes (presumed spherocytes), leukopenia followed by leukocytosis, elevated plasma protein, biliverdinuria, and polyuria. Radiography and ultrasonography demonstrated a markedly enlarged spleen. After immunosuppressive treatment with prednisolone, the anemia, abnormal erythrocyte morphology, and biliverdinuria resolved but returned promptly after discontinuation of the therapy. We propose that this conure suffered from an immune-mediated hemolytic anemia.

Two 3-week-old African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus) were each presented with an impacted crop. An inappropriate diet fed to the parents and a displaced parental instinct for feeding mineral and grit to the offspring were postulated to be the causes of the crop impactions. Surgical intervention relieved both impactions and recoveries were uneventful.

A myxoid fibrosarcoma in the wing of a blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) was treated with radiation therapy and intratumoral chemotherapy with cisplatin. The tumor was treated with a radiation dose of 40 Gy delivered during 22 days on an alternate-day schedule of 4 Gy/fraction and 3 chemotherapy treatments given once weekly at a dose of 0.3 mg of cisplatin per cm³ of tissue. Treatment was effective, and adverse effects were not noted clinically. Complete tumor remission was observed within 2 months after treatment completion, and the remission lasted 15 months until the macaw died of an unrelated cause. A cumulative effect of repeated intratumoral administrations on plasma concentrations of cisplatin was not observed during the course of treatment, although only trough levels were measured. Cisplatin-related systemic toxicities monitored by complete blood count and serum biochemical analysis were not found. Acute local reactions including edema and necrosis of the skin were self-limiting. Treatment complications included a decreased range of motion of the involved carpus. This may have resulted from radiation-induced fibrosis and bony fusion associated with bone remodeling. Results provide preliminary evidence that concurrent irradiation and intralesional chemotherapy may be an effective treatment for unresectable tumors in birds.