Cardiac disease, in its various presentations, is being recognized as a common raptor health problem. Evidence suggests that the prevalence of cardiac disease varies between captive and wild bird of prey populations, probably because of differences in activity levels and diet. However, a wide variety of cardiovascular diseases have been reported to affect raptor species (captive and free living), including atherosclerosis, pathogenic arrhythmias, infectious cardiomyopathies, and endocarditis. Diagnostic testing used to identify cardiac abnormalities include radiographic imaging, electrocardiogram, echocardiogram, and computed tomography angiograms. Information pertaining to therapeutic treatment for raptor cardiac disease patients is inadequate or has not been investigated. This review of cardiac disease will provide current information regarding cardiac diseases that are diagnosed in birds of prey, diagnostic testing, and treatment options.

The parakeet auklet (Aethia psittacula) is a piscivorous seabird with a natural diet of various invertebrate and teleost species, which is challenging to replicate in a managed collection. A high prevalence of early onset cataracts was observed in a managed collection of parakeet auklets at the North Carolina Zoo (Asheboro, NC, USA), which was hypothesized to be related to inappropriate vitamin A and E levels. From 1994 to 2002, these parakeet auklets were offered dietary supplementation comprising Vita-Zu small bird tablets. In June 2002, the birds were transitioned to only Thiamin-E paste (vitamin E and thiamin only). Plasma samples were collected from birds with and without cataracts from 1998 to 2005 and submitted for vitamin A (retinol) and vitamin E (α-tocopherol) analysis. Food items comprising the birds' diet were also evaluated for vitamin content. This information was combined with clinical and necropsy data from medical records from 1994 to 2015. A total of 78% of birds (39/50) developed cataracts, with a median age of onset of 7 years (range, 2–12 years). Cataracts ranged from incipient to hypermature during both routine ophthalmic examinations and postmortem evaluations. The median (range) of plasma retinol and α-tocopherol values were 1.99 µg/mL (0.20–6.68 µg/mL) and 15.39 µg/mL (3.40–96.27 µg/mL), respectively. There were no significant differences in plasma concentrations of vitamins based on the animals' sex, origin, presence of cataracts, or administered vitamin supplementation product. No other etiologies for cataract development were identified in the population. Further research in free-ranging parakeet auklet nutrition and cataract occurrence is warranted for continued species collection management.

The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between arterial pressure and intraosseous (IO) pressure obtained by conventional IO needle in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). Twelve healthy African grey parrots with mean body weight 465.25 g were anesthetized in an induction chamber with 5% isoflurane and 100% oxygen, followed by intubation and connection to a pressure-limited intermittent-flow ventilator. A 24-gauge catheter was placed into the deep radial artery in one wing and a 22-gauge needle was placed into the distal ulnar medullary cavity in the contralateral wing. Both cannulas were connected to a 9-cm noncompliant tube and then linked to a disposable pressure sensor. Pressures and waveforms from both cannulas were recorded for 10 minutes while isoflurane was maintained at 3%. The results showed that the arterial pressure values were normally distributed (P < .05), whereas the IO pressure values were not (P > .05). Arterial and IO pressure were not correlated (P > 0.05), but IO pressure and heart rate were positively correlated (Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, 0.58; P < .05). Multiple characteristics of the IO waveforms were observed, including distinguishable continuous waveforms (n = 8), a single wave crest (n = 4), respiratory variation (n = 7), and a dicrotic notch (n = 3), and IO waveforms were appearing at a similar or delayed point relative to the related arterial waveforms (n = 8). Although IO pressure was not correlated with arterial pressure in the African grey parrots under the study conditions, the positive correlation between IO pressure and heart rate and the IO waveform characteristics suggest that the inflow arterioles likely account for the retained arterial waveform radiating into the IO space. These findings are consistent with those from all previously tested mammals. Therefore, insights into potential future improvements of the measuring techniques and protocols can be reached by thoroughly reviewing the current knowledge on IO pressure in mammals.

Several methods have been reported for treating avian antebrachial fractures, yet the quantitative information regarding their success is limited. This retrospective study applied data from raptors admitted to a wildlife rehabilitation center to provide metrics associated with the treatment of ulna fractures with an intact radius by either conservative management or a single surgical method: a type I external skeletal fixator tied in to an intramedullary pin (ESF IMP tie-in). Postfledging wild raptors with an ulna fracture admitted to The Raptor Center at the University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine (St Paul, MN, USA) between January 1, 2007, and December 31, 2017, that survived for at least 7 days after admission were included in the study. Information regarding signalment, fracture characteristics, treatment method, outcome, and complications were recorded. The study included 110 raptors representing 15 species. The majority of birds (69%, 76/110) were treated with conservative management. Conservative management was used more often in cases of chronic (P = .02) and closed (P = .02) fractures, whereas fractures with poor alignment at the time of admission were frequently treated through surgical means (P=.001). Alignment was more likely to improve with an ESF IMP tie-in (P=1.01 ×10^–9). The majority of cases (65%, 72/110) had a successful outcome. Birds with closed fractures were more likely to have a successful outcome (P=.03). Birds in which fracture alignment became exacerbated with either treatment method were more likely to have a poor outcome (P=.002). The results of this retrospective study found that conservative management and surgical fixation by the ESF IMP tie-in technique are both viable treatment options for ulna fractures with an intact radius in raptors. The choice of treatment method is dependent on the clinician's assessment of the fracture characteristics and individual patient.

A 27-year-old female African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) presented as a referral for surgical removal of an enlarged uropygial gland that was first observed by the owner 6 months prior. Antibiotic therapy was attempted by the referring veterinarian with limited treatment response. No abnormalities were noted in the results of a complete blood count and plasma biochemistry panel. Computed tomographic imaging of the parrot showed a left-sided uropygial gland mass with no evidence of metastasis or invasion into the underlying soft tissue or bone. The uropygial gland was surgically excised in an attempt to obtain clean margins devoid of tumor cells. Histopathological evaluation of the submitted tissue was suggestive of an intraluminal uropygial gland epithelioma. Intraluminal epithelioma should be considered as a differential diagnosis in psittacine species that are presented with an asymmetrically enlarged uropygial gland.

A 7-month-old male North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) was transferred from a European zoological park to a North American private aviary. The bird appeared clinically normal upon arrival, but within 30 days, it developed clinical disease signs of sneezing, stridor, and increased respiratory effort. Upon examination a 1-mm yellow plaque was identified on the glottis. After 14 days of empiric treatment with enrofloxacin, meloxicam, and itraconazole, on repeat examination, the glottal plaque had increased in size to a 7-mm-diameter friable mass attached to the right laryngeal cartilage and was partially obstructing the airway. Initially, 80% of the mass was manually dislodged, but within 4 days the tissue mass had again enlarged to approximately 3 mm × 4 mm × 4 mm, prompting surgical excision. On histopathologic examination, the mass was identified as a benign salivary gland adenoma without clear margins. Approximately 3 years postexcision, there is no evidence of tumor regrowth. The successful excision of a benign salivary tumor described in this report will serve as a valuable guide for future cases of similar neoplasms diagnosed in the oral cavity of kiwis and other avian species.

The red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis) is a critically endangered species. Three-dimensional–printed prosthetic beaks made of titanium alloy and polyether ether ketone (PEEK) were used to repair the beak of a red-crowned crane that had a complete fracture of the anterior maxillary bone and rhinotheca. The physical properties and stability of the prostheses and changes in the crane's behaviors after application of either beak were evaluated. The titanium alloy and PEEK prosthetic beaks weighed 30.81 g and 5.9 g, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy showed differences in microstructure between the 2 materials and the true beak; the true beak was softer than both materials from which the prostheses were made. The titanium beak frequently detached, and the residual natural beak showed significant cuticle softening with this prosthetic beak. The titanium beak detached within an approximately 3-month period after placement, whereas the PEEK prosthetic beak has remained secure for 2 years. Moreover, the crane's foraging times (P < .01) and grooming times (P < .05) with the titanium alloy false beak were lower than the normal, red-crowned crane. With the PEEK beak, no detachment or cuticle softening occurred, and foraging and grooming behaviors were evaluated by the investigators as natural (P > .05). Based on the results of this clinical case, the PEEK prosthetic beak was found to be superior to the titanium alloy prosthetic beak in color, weight, firmness, and postoperative effects.

An adult male mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos) of unknown age was presented for acute intermittent respiratory distress that resolved when at rest. The duck had no history or evidence of trauma and had never been intubated. Radiographic imaging revealed a 1-cm tracheal defect at the level of the sixth vertebra. Surgical correction of the defect was pursued, during which a complete transverse tracheal rupture of unknown origin was identified. The separated tracheal sections were successfully anastomosed without resection of any tracheal rings. Tracheoscopy performed 2 months after the surgical procedure revealed healthy mucosa at the anastomosis site with a slight narrowing of the tracheal lumen.

An approximately 38-year-old captive male lesser flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor) was presented with a mass involving the right ventral gnathotheca. The mass was surgically excised after which the flamingo was treated with parenteral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory and antibiotic drugs. Histological analysis identified an abscess with intralesional fungal organisms. Culture and polymerase chain reaction sequencing identified the fungal organisms within the lesion as Candida albicans. Treatment with oral itraconazole was initiated 23 days after initial surgical excision; however, the flamingo continued to lose weight while being treated, and died after 10 days of antifungal therapy. Necropsy, histologic examination, and culture confirmed the persistence of a mycotic abscess that infiltrated the mandibular bone and was associated with C albicans.

This case series describes polycystic kidney disease in 3 (2 male, 1 female) 2-month-old, juvenile rainbow lorikeets (Trichoglossus moluccanus). The lorikeets diagnosed with polycystic kidney disease were the progeny of full sibling parents that were being intentionally line bred for the purpose of establishing a rainbow lorikeet with the blue color mutation. Clinically the juvenile lorikeets were presented with clinical signs of lethargy, dehydration, regurgitation, anorexia, polyuria, and pelvic limb paresis. Multiple abnormalities were identified on the complete blood count and plasma biochemistry panel, including a normocytic normochromic nonregenerative anemia, hyperuricemia, hyperphosphatemia, hypercalcemia, and azotemia. Severe renal dysfunction was diagnosed in all birds on the basis of clinical presentation, physical examination, and complete blood count and plasma biochemistry results. Radiographically marked renomegaly was noted in one of the cases. Although intensive critical care and supportive therapy was provided, 1 lorikeet died, and the remaining 2 were euthanatized because of client financial constraints and a rapid deterioration of their clinical condition associated with severe renal dysfunction. Postmortem pathology results found that all birds had marked renomegaly, visceral gout, and polycystic kidney disease. Because of the age of the birds and the line breeding within this group of lorikeets, the disease was believed to be inherited. Polycystic kidney disease should be considered as a possible differential diagnosis in juvenile psittacine birds with a history of line breeding when presented with severe renal dysfunction. From the current case series, polycystic kidney disease appears to carry a grave prognosis in juvenile rainbow lorikeets.