A 5-yr-old, female red-tailed boa constrictor (Boa constrictor constrictor) was presented with hyporexia, regurgitation, and progressive focal distention of the caudal coelom for 2 months. During physical examination a firm, well-demarcated and movable intracoelomic mass was detected halfway down the caudal coelom, but no other abnormalities were noticed. Ultrasonographic examination showed the mass to consist of an intestinal intussusception. A complete blood cell count and serum biochemistry results revealed mild anemia and leukocytosis as well as hyperuricemia and hyperphosphatemia with inversion of the calcium/phosphorus ratio. Explorative celiotomy was performed and revealed anterograde invagination of the ileum into the colon through the ileocolic junction. Although the intussusception was surgically repositioned, the snake died 3 wk postoperatively, despite showing a good general condition and defecation following assisted feeding. During necropsy, a thickened wall of the caudal segment of the ileum that was previously involved in the intussusception was observed as well as the presence of multifocal, white nodules throughout the parenchyma of the liver, spleen, and kidneys. Histopathological examination demonstrated a malignant round cell tumor of the ileum with infiltration of neoplastic round cells in the liver, spleen and kidneys. Immunohistochemical staining (CD3, CD20, MAC387, S100, and NSE) could not confirm the cell origin of the round cell tumor. The present case highlights the need to include round cell tumors as a differential diagnosis in the development of ileocolic intussusception in red-tailed boa constrictors.

Nannizziopsis guarroi infection in lizards presents therapeutic challenges, with reports of poor clinical outcomes, including antifungal toxicity, incomplete clearance of infection, and recrudescence of infection being common. The case presented here describes the successful treatment of an N. guarroi infection using systemic terbinafine and environmental disinfection in a captive-bred central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps). The lizard presented with darkly colored cutaneous lesions, and mycologic culture samples were identified as N. guarroi using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization–time of flight. Based upon the lack of clinical resolution of cutaneous lesions, weight loss, and reduced appetite, initial treatment with voriconazole was discontinued. Terbinafine was prescribed, and weekly environmental disinfection with sodium hypochlorite was initiated until cutaneous clearance of the fungus was confirmed by negative culture, histopathology, and N. guarroi quantitative polymerase chain reaction from cutaneous swab. Terbinafine treatment was discontinued after 80 days. There were no clinical signs of toxicity associated with the prolonged treatment, and the lizard has not developed any cutaneous lesions or illness in more than 2 yr of clinical follow-up. Although the ideal treatment of N. guarroi is still being investigated, this case demonstrates a promising and safe treatment option for an increasingly common and devastating disease.

An estimated 29-yr-old male zoo-housed desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) presented for endoscopic liver biopsies as part of a diagnostic workup for recurrent, profound anemia and hypoalbuminemia. Suspected cystoliths were identified during endoscopy, but were not visible on conventional radiographs. Dual-energy computed tomography (DECT) imaging confirmed the presence of a large urate urolith filling the majority of the bladder. Because of the recent clinical illness, the tortoise was considered a poor surgical candidate. Medical management consisting of urinary alkalinization with potassium citrate, vibration therapy, and daily warm water soaks was elected. Following institution of medical therapies, the tortoise began passing pieces of urate stone that were 0.25–2.0 cm in diameter during daily soaks. A recheck DECT scan at 2 months indicated the urolith was approximately one third the initial size, suggesting medical therapy was effectively treating the urolith. Unfortunately, after 5 months of medical therapy, the stone had increased in size again on the follow-up DECT scan. This case report suggests that medical management may be a potential option for large urate cystoliths in desert tortoises, although more research is needed to further refine effective therapeutics for such cases. The use of DECT imaging was essential in this case because it enabled confirmation of stone presence, identification of urolith composition, and monitoring of response to therapy.

Reptile euthanasia techniques are poorly described. This nonblinded randomized study compared pentobarbital, lidocaine, and potassium chloride (KCl) for leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) euthanasia at 20°C (68°F) and evaluated for postmortem artifacts. Fifty-three clinically healthy adult leopard gecko were scheduled for euthanasia due to Cryptosporidium varanii exposure. Based on pilot-study results, geckos randomly received one of six treatments: intracoelomic (ICo) pentobarbital 400 mg/kg (ICo-P4, n = 9) or 800 mg/kg (ICo-P8, n = 9), intramuscular (IM) alfaxalone 20 mg/kg followed by intracardiac (ICa) pentobarbital 800 mg/kg (ICa-P, n = 9), KCl 10 mEq/kg (ICa-K, n = 9), or lidocaine 100 mg/kg (ICa-L, n = 9) or IM alfaxalone 20mg/kg (IM-A, n = 8, control). Serial Doppler heart rate assessments were performed until cardiac arrest, 30 min (ICa groups), or 60 min (ICo groups) posttreatment. Cardiac arrest occurred in 7/9, 9/9, 9/9, 8/9, and 8/9 geckos in ICo-P4, ICo-P8, ICa-P, ICa-K, and ICa-L, respectively, with median (range) times of 35 (25–45), 30 (15–60), 0 (0–6.33), 0 (0–0.05), and 0 (0–0.03) min. Side effects were noted in a subset of ICo-P (arched posture) and ICa-K (muscle spasms) geckos. Six geckos in ICa-L had Doppler sound resumption several hours following cessation, with three displaying spontaneous movement. All geckos in IM-A recovered. Intracardiac pentobarbital following IM alfaxalone caused rapid, permanent loss of heartbeat in all tested geckos. Intracoelomic pentobarbital was also effective, but had a prolonged time to cardiac arrest. Intracardiac lidocaine is not recommended for leopard gecko euthanasia.

Euthanasia techniques in amphibians are poorly described and sparsely validated. This study investigated potassium chloride (KCl) for euthanasia of anesthetized marine toads (Rhinella marina). Twenty-three toads were immersed in buffered MS-222 (2 g/L) for 5 min beyond loss of righting reflex, manually removed, and randomly administered KCl (n = 6/group) via one of three routes: intracardiac at 10 mEq/kg (IC), intracoelomic at 100 mEq/kg (ICe), or immersion at 4,500 mEq/L (IMS) or no treatment (C) (n = 5/group). Doppler sounds were assessed continuously from prior to treatment until 5 min posttreatment and every 5 min thereafter until sound cessation or resumption of spontaneous movement. Plasma potassium concentration (K+) was measured at the time of Doppler sound cessation in ICe and IMS. In IC, ICe, IMS, and C, Doppler sound cessation occurred in 4/6, 6/6, 6/6, and 1/5 toads with median (range) or mean ± SD times of 0.23 (0–4.65), 17.5 ± 9.0, 40.6 ± 10.9, and >420 min, respectively. Nonsuccess in 2/6 toads in IC was suspected due to technique failure. Plasma K+ exceeded the limits of detection (>9 mmol/L) in 12/12 toads in ICe and IMS. Five of six toads in C resumed spontaneous movement at median (range) times of 327 (300–367) min. KCl delivered via an intracardiac, intracoelomic, or immersion route resulted in Doppler sound cessation in 16 of 18 toads and may be appropriate for euthanasia of anesthetized marine toads.

The Northwestern pond turtle (Actinemys marmorata) is native to Washington State, USA and has developed a grossly evident form of shell disease affecting a large percentage of the free-ranging population in this state. Emydomyces testavorans is a novel fungus in the order Onygenales that is the presumed causative agent for shell disease in the Northwestern pond turtle. Terbinafine hydrochloride is a lipophilic allylamine broad-spectrum antifungal that penetrates keratin and concentrates in the stratum corneum. This study evaluated the drug concentration in the plasma and keratin of 18 Northwestern pond turtles after nebulization with 18 mg terbinafine solution (2 mg/ml) once a day for 28 days. Blood and keratin samples were collected serially during the course of treatment, and for 14 days following the last dose. Plasma and keratin were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. No significant concentrations of terbinafine were found in the plasma of the turtles. Terbinafine in turtle keratin peaked after 16 days of treatment and maintained therapeutic concentrations for 14 days posttreatment. Turtle shell lesions also showed signs of clinical improvement posttherapy. Nebulization of terbinafine is recommended for the treatment of shell disease secondary to Emydomyces testavorans; however, pulse antifungal therapy is likely needed to prevent disease from reoccurring.

Few studies have characterized the prevalence of intraerythrocytic parasites in free-ranging chelonian populations or their occurrence across habitats. It is hypothesized that chelonians in different habitats have different exposures to vectors and thus differences in hemoparasite presence. This study explored the prevalence and intensity of intraerythrocytic parasites by examining blood smears from four species of Illinois turtles: wild Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii), eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina), ornate box turtle (Terrapene ornata ornata), and prerelease head-started alligator snapping turtle (Macrochelys temminckii). Intraerythrocytic parasites were identified in all examined species except for the alligator snapping turtle. For all age classes, Blanding's turtles had both the highest prevalence of hemoparasites and the highest intensity of infection of all sampled species, whereas adult Blanding's turtles had a significantly higher prevalence than juveniles (P < 0.05). Because this is the first study of hemoparasites in Illinois chelonians, further research is needed to identify the specific species of intraerythrocytic parasite, the potential vectors, and the effect that these hemoparasites have on the health of chelonians.

Lymph contamination of peripheral blood samples is common in reptile species due to a close association of the lymphatic and vascular systems. Grossly lymph-diluted samples are generally discarded due to potential effects on hematologic and biochemical parameters. Differences in biochemistry values from different sample sites in chelonians are often attributed to lymph contamination. Previous studies have evaluated blood–lymph mixtures but provide limited information because the proportion of lymph is unknown. Differences in biochemistry values of pure lymph compared to plasma are unknown in chelonian species. Paired plasma samples collected from the jugular vein and lymph samples collected from the dorsal lymphatic ring adjacent to the subcarapacial plexus were collected from 11 (6 female, 5 male) Krefft's river turtles (Emydura macquarii krefftii) for comparison of biochemical analytes. No statistically significant differences were found between lymph and plasma samples for chloride, glucose, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, urea nitrogen, and total bilirubin. Statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05) differences were found between lymph and plasma samples for gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), total protein, globulin, and uric acid. Sex and sample differences were statistically significant for sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), albumin, and triglycerides, while significant sex differences only were found for alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol, and iron. Severe lymph dilution (1:1 with plasma) may cause clinically significant decreases of potassium, total protein, globulin, and LDH, and increases of GGT and uric acid in both sexes, as well as clinically significant decreases of calcium and triglycerides in female Krefft's river turtles.

Metastatic soft tissue mineralization has emerged as a major cause of death in captive Komodo dragons (Varanus komodoensis). A cross-sectional survey-based study was performed to evaluate husbandry-related risk factors for metastatic mineralization in zoo-housed Komodo dragons in the United States. Nineteen institutions participated, nine of which (47.4%) had a history of metastatic mineralization within their collections. Husbandry at participating institutions varied in temperature gradients, outdoor exposure, artificial lighting, and diet items offered. Differences in husbandry were tested between institutions with and without a history of mineralization by using univariate analyses, and variables resulting in a significance level of ≤0.10 were entered into a multinomial logistic regression model. The only variable demonstrating a significant difference during univariate analyses was the number of Komodo dragons per enclosure (P = 0.036), whereas the only significant predictive variable after modeling was humidity approximation. Zoos that approximated rather than measured humidity were 12.0 times as likely to have a history of mineralization in their Komodo dragons (odds ratio [OR] = 12.0, P = 0.045). These variables likely reflect the under- or overestimation of exhibit humidity levels and the tendency to house males and females together. Based on postmortem findings for 27 Komodo dragon mortalities from these institutions, the presence of mineralization at necropsy was significantly associated with female dragons (OR = 18.2, P = 0.0044) and yolk coelomitis or embolism (OR = 6.76, P = 0.046). Although this study did not identify definitive links between husbandry and the prevalence of mineralization at the institutional level, the survey revealed high variation in husbandry conditions and potential deficiencies in management based on the Association of Zoos and Aquariums and the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria guidelines.

Thyroid hormones and the factors influencing them are rarely studied in tortoises. This study therefore aimed to calculate reference intervals (RI) for thyroid hormones and iodine concentrations by species, sexes, and seasons in four species of adult Mediterranean tortoises (Testudo spp.) and to evaluate possible correlations between plasma thyroid hormones, serum iodine, plasma protein, and increased liver and kidney values. Thyroid hormones (total tetraiodothyronine [tT4], free tetraiodothyronine [fT4], total triiodothyronine [tT3], and free triiodothyronine [fT3]) were measured in plasma from adult, healthy Hermann's (Testudo hermanni, n = 255), spur-thighed (Testudo graeca, n = 89), marginated (Testudo marginata, n = 72), and Russian tortoises (Testudo horsfieldii, n = 30). Species, sex, and seasonal variations were determined by Bayesian information criterion (BIC), and correlations between thyroid hormones, protein, iodine, and increased liver/kidney values were evaluated by Spearman's rank correlation test. Total T4 did not reveal any species, sex, or seasonal differences (RI: 0.102–0.455 µg/dl), while seasonal differences were found for fT4 (RI: spring 0.624–9.012; summer 0.379–5.476; fall 0.376–5.426 pmol/L). The tT3 concentrations differed significantly depending on species, season, and the interaction of species × season. Seasonal differences were also found for fT3 and iodine. Several significant (P ≤ 0.05) correlations were detected between the analytes, including a positive correlation between tT4 and fT4. These results provide a tool for the evaluation of thyroid hormone concentrations in Mediterranean tortoises and confirm the influence of season on thyroid function in these animals.