Seasonal shifts and overlap in home range are poorly known in the Leopard Tortoise (Stigmochelys pardalis). Consequently, these, together with daily distance moved, were investigated in the semiarid Nama-Karoo, as a function of season, sex, and body mass. Annual home-range size was significantly greater for telemetered compared with nontelemetered tortoises stressing the importance of telemetry in spatial ecological studies of tortoises. Consequently, only telemetered tortoises were analyzed further in terms of variation between seasons and sexes. Home ranges differed significantly with season and were smallest in winter, when tortoises were less active. Seasonal home-range size did not differ between sexes. Considerable individual variation existed in the amount of home-range overlap both within and between sexes. Daily distance moved in each season was highly variable for each individual and between individuals. However, the least movement occurred in winter in all individuals. Home-range size and daily distances moved in the active seasons were larger than for Leopard Tortoises found in more mesic habitats, suggesting a resource availability effect. Increased home-range size, in conjunction with their low density and population size, has implications for Leopard Tortoise conservation in semiarid regions in terms of planning and designating conservation areas. Variation in home-range size with regard to habitat type must be considered when planning terrestrial tortoise conservation efforts.

In reptiles, phenotypic measures such as body size usually predict a male’s success in territorial interactions. Recent evidence from fish, birds, and mammals has shown that genetic heterozygosity also has a strong influence on competitive ability and territory quality. Here, we provide a comprehensive assessment of the social structure and factors affecting male territory quality and aggressive behavior in a dense population of Tuatara, a long-lived reptile that maintains long-term territories, on Stephens Island, New Zealand. The only significant predictor of female access and competitive ability was male body size, and there was no relationship between male body size or condition and individual genetic heterozygosity. Body size, body condition, and heterozygosity did not predict territory size. Also, heterozygosity, body condition, and territory size had no relationship with the number of females to which a male had access. Large males were more effective at (1) monopolizing areas where females were most dense and (2) guarding females by consistently winning aggressive encounters with other males. Our finding of no relationship between territoriality and heterozygosity probably reflects the genetic background of this large, outbred population or that behavioral attributes or neutral heterozygosity are not appropriate individual fitness correlates for these long-lived reptiles.

Studies that document changes in long-lived species are valuable in determining how demographic and environmental changes are affecting populations. This study documents apparent declines in Eastern Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) populations over the last 20 years in the Allegheny River drainage of New York State. We compared current mark–recapture data to similar data collected in the 1980s at eight sites using a comparable method of capture (rock turning). In addition, we employed several other methods of capture including trapping, bank searching, and night lighting. Despite these extra efforts, the number of Hellbenders captured was less than the number captured historically. Hellbenders were extirpated from a single site and the ecological density (number of individuals per 10 m² of habitable area) decreased in several other sites relative to the 1980s. Current and historical populations contained more mature adults than juveniles, but we found more Hellbenders <20 cm total length at five sites compared to the 1980s study. The sex ratio changed from predominantly female in the 1980s to predominantly male currently. Eggs in nests were found in both studies, although little is known about egg or larval survival and overall recruitment. Although demographic issues such as reproduction and recruitment may be contributing to Hellbender declines in the Allegheny drainage, these do not appear to have changed drastically from the 1980s. Other possible causes of decline include factors such as land use changes, introduced species, or some other environmental issue.

Habitat selection in adult Alligator Snapping Turtles (Macrochelys temminckii) is known for only a few populations. Given that habitat availability can vary in different geographical locations, we used radiotelemetry to study habitat selection in a riverine habitat in central Arkansas by attaching radio transmitters to 14 female and four male Alligator Snapping Turtles. We tested the hypothesis that males and females select different habitats throughout the year because of differences in reproductive cycles and higher thermoregulatory requirements for females prior to nesting. Our results indicated that males and females selected similar habitats with similar thermal properties, but both sexes selected submerged structure. The tendency for Alligator Snapping Turtles to select sites with structure may be caused by higher prey densities (e.g., fish and crayfish) in these areas, protection from predators (e.g., American Alligators), or as an aid in surfacing to breathe rather than for thermoregulatory purposes.

Lentic (i.e., lake) and lotic (i.e., river) environments differ in several biotic and abiotic variables such as water velocity, productivity, thermal regimes, and depth. These variables can interact with important factors such as sex, body size, and life-history stage to shape the spatial ecology of aquatic animals such as freshwater turtles. We used radio-telemetry to study seasonal movement patterns and home-range size of juvenile and adult Northern Map Turtles (Graptemys geographica) both in a small lake and in a large river in eastern Ontario, Canada. Adult females in the lotic environment moved longer distances and had larger home ranges than conspecifics from the lentic environment. Males and juvenile females at each site had similar patterns of space use. A seasonal effect on movement was only apparent for adult females in the lotic environment in which adult females moved longer distances during the nesting season. Differences in swimming abilities resulting from a larger body size, in natal homing, or in nest site availability are potential factors explaining the site difference in the spatial ecology of adult females. Our findings illustrate the complexity of interactions shaping patterns of space use by aquatic reptiles.

A new species of Heterodactylus is described based on two specimens obtained in the highlands of Chapada Diamantina, state of Bahia, Brazil. The new lizard is characterized by very elongate body and tail, absence of external ear opening, presence of moveable eyelids, absence of prefrontals and frontoparietals, a vestigial interparietal, 37–39 dorsal and 27–29 ventral transverse scale rows, 23–25 scales around midbody, six gular scale rows, and 10–11 and 14–15 fourth finger and fourth toe infradigital lamellae, respectively. The new species is most similar to Heterodactylus lundii from which it differs by the absence of contact between frontal and interparietal, by having wider than long parietals, smooth posterior dorsal scales, posterior ventral scales almost twice longer than wide, a lower number of scales around midbody, last supralabial in contact with the granules of the ear depression, and a more elongate body. The new species occurs about 1,100 km north of the northernmost known record of H. lundii. Species of Heterodactylus seem to be restricted to areas of cold climates associated with high latitudes and mountainous areas of eastern Brasil.

The extant genus Eunectes was first reported for the Middle Miocene of Colombia, represented by the extinct species Eunectes stirtoni. Here, we describe vertebral remains referable to this genus collected in the Neogene Solimões Formation at the Talismã locality, situated on the right-hand bank upstream of the Purus River, in the South of Amazonas State, Brazil. The material consists of isolated mid- and posterior trunk vertebrae characterized by the following combination of features that distinguishes the genus from other Neotropical boids: large size, slightly depressed neural arch, relatively low neural spine, robust and moderately thick zygosphene, with a prominent median tubercle, paracotylar foramen irregularly present, and a strong lateroventral projection of the paradiapophyses on the posterior trunk vertebrae. The presence of Eunectes in the Solimões Formation represents the first fossil record of snakes from the southwestern Brazilian Amazonia and supports the origin of this genus in the Miocene or before.

We use mitochondrial gene sequences to estimate relationships among Gekko populations from the northern Philippines. These data, plus morphological and biogeographical evidence, suggest that the Babuyan and Batanes island groups (north of Luzon Island) are inhabited by a minimum of six distinct evolutionary lineages, only two of which (Gekko porosus Taylor from the Batanes and Gekko crombota from Babuyan Claro) have been formally recognized as distinct species. In this paper, we provide a description of another new species, the endemic Gekko from Calayan Island. This geographically isolated species is diagnosed on the basis of a distinct color pattern, body size, scalation, and significant divergence in mitochondrial gene sequences. The new species has been found on rocky outcrops and limestone caves in forested areas and on trunks of mature forest trees ≤500 m above sea level, away from the island's coast. Given the history of geological isolation of Calayan Island and the distinctiveness of the endemic Gekko populations there, we are confident in diagnosing this gecko as a unique evolutionary lineage; it is unlikely that this species will be found on neighboring land masses. The remaining major islands of the Babuyans group (Camiguin Norte, Fuga, and Dalupiri islands) each contain similarly distinct endemic species that await description; additional surveys throughout the Batanes and Babuyan islands will be necessary to arrive at an estimate of total species diversity for this isolated gekkonid radiation.

We used radio-telemetry to investigate the seasonal dynamics of wetland use by Spotted Turtles (Clemmys guttata) and Blanding's Turtles (Emydoidea blandingii) in southern Maine. Habitat use was examined in a temporally segregated manner, comparing wetland use among seasonally discrete activity periods. Distinct seasonal movement patterns were detected and logistic regression revealed significant differences in wetland characteristics across seasons for both species. Spotted Turtles exhibited a positive association with wetlands hosting abundant Wood Frog (Lithobates sylvaticus) egg masses in spring, and a negative association with forested wetlands from spring through late summer. Blanding's Turtles were closely associated with forested wetlands in spring, wetlands with abundant Wood Frog egg masses and good sun exposure in early summer, and deep-water wetlands in late summer and fall. The seasonal differences in habitat use found in this study highlight the complex and dynamic landscape required to sustain these rare turtles. Spotted and Blanding's Turtles' diverse habitat requirements require frequent terrestrial movements, exposing them to threats for which mitigation requires understanding spatial and temporal shifts in habitats use.

Habitat fragmentation is a significant threat to biodiversity worldwide. Habitat loss and the isolation of habitat fragments disrupt biological communities, accelerate the extinction of populations, and often lead to the alteration of behavioral patterns typical of individuals in large, contiguous natural areas. We used radio-telemetry to study the space-use behavior of the Coachwhip, a larger-bodied, wide-ranging snake species threatened by habitat fragmentation, in fragmented and contiguous areas of coastal southern California. We tracked 24 individuals at three sites over two years. Movement patterns of Coachwhips changed in habitat fragments. As area available to the snakes was reduced, individuals faced increased crowding, had smaller home-range sizes, tolerated greater home-range overlap, and showed more concentrated movement activity and convoluted movement pathways. The behavioral response shown by Coachwhips suggests, on a regional level, area-effects alone cannot explain observed extinctions on habitat fragments but, instead, suggests changes in habitat configuration are more likely to explain the decline of this species. Ultimately, if “edge-exposure” is a common cause of decline, then isolated fragments, appropriately buffered to reduce emigration and edge effects, may support viable populations of fragmentation-sensitive species.

The advertisment calls of the recently described frog Eupsophus queulensis (Cycloramphidae) are analyzed, based on recordings of seven males. Eupsophus queulensis emits an advertisment call consisting of a harmonic-rich frequency modulated note, with dominant second and third harmonics. The temporal parameters of the calls had large intra- and interindividual variation relative to the spectral parameters. The frequency modulations follow four different patterns, as described previously for Eupsophus calcaratus and Eupsophus roseus. Individual frogs produce calls having different frequency modulation patterns, and the proportions of each pattern vary individually. A discriminant analysis positions the calls of E. queulensis closer to E. roseus than to E. calcaratus, which is congruent with the geographic and phylogenetic affinities, as well as with the relative body sizes of these taxa.

Predators must balance their time between foraging (searching for and capturing food) and other necessary behaviors, such as courtship, mating, territoriality, and predator avoidance. The purpose of this study was to determine how much time two lizard species (Sceloporus jarrovii and Sceloporus virgatus) spent in foraging, aggressive, general maintenance, and basking behaviors. Two age classes of S. jarrovii were examined in this study, neonate and adult, whereas only adults of S. virgatus were studied. Lizards were observed for 30-min intervals from late May through July in 2004 and 2005 at two research sites in southeastern Arizona. Neonatal S. jarrovii spent more time running and foraging during observational intervals than did adults of either species, which may be a result of their higher metabolic needs. Adult S. virgatus spent more time doing head bobs than did either age class of S. jarrovii, possibly explained by the notion that this behavior is used for both aggression and courtship and both were occurring for S. virgatus during the study. In contrast, adult S. jarrovii spent little time in head bobs, because courtship and mating in this species were not occurring during the time of the study. Very little time was spent actively foraging by any subject lizard group, because the majority of time was spent immobile, likely basking or passively searching for prey. Differential amounts of time spent in the various measured behaviors can be explained by the reproductive or developmental state of the lizards involved.

The range of Phyllomedusa rohdei was recently extended to the state of Bahia, Brazil. Cytogenetic analysis through conventional Giemsa staining and Ag-NOR banding of P. rohdei samples from two localities in the Atlantic Rainforest, state of Bahia revealed intraspecific karyotype variation. Although all individuals showed the diploid number of 2n  =  26, variations in the karyotypic formula were observed. The greatest variation was found in the length of first chromosome pair. The Ag-NOR banding identified variability in the number of stained chromosomes, which ranged from two to four banded chromosomes per individual. The results revealed the preliminary stages of chromosomal differentiation within this species.

This study examined the jumping pattern and its relationship with various body traits in semiterrestrial tadpoles, Indirana beddomii. The tadpoles were separated into four groups based on the absence (Group I) or presence (Group II) of functional hind limbs, presence of forelimbs (Group III), and at metamorphic climax (Group IV). During early developmental stages, tadpoles are able to move by flipping and jumping not only forward but also sideways and backward. Prior to takeoff, they usually wag the tail, possibly providing thrust to takeoff. However, in later developmental stages, hind limbs are used for take off. In Group I tadpoles, the tail was three times longer than SVL and contributed to jumping performance. In Groups II and III, both SVL and hind-limb length were positively correlated to jumping performance. In the Group III, forelimb length was also correlated with jumping performance. However, stepwise multiple regression analysis showed that, in Group II, hind limbs and, in Group III, forelimbs contributed to jumping performance. Thus I. beddomii tadpoles use their tails for jumping at early stages and limbs at later stages. Upon reaching metamorphic climax and thereafter, the correlations between jumping performance and SVL and hind- or forelimb length was lost. Lack of correlation between the body traits and jumping performance during metamorphic climax may be attributed to physiological and anatomical changes occurring during this phase.

Pseudopaludicola are small diurnal leiuperid frogs that are recognized by a hemispherical tubercle on their forearms. Members of this genus are broadly distributed over northern and central South America with 12 species currently recognized. Pseudopaludicola mirandae was described from six individuals and discriminated from Pseudopaludicola boliviana based solely on putative differences in head width. We reexamined the type series of P. mirandae and a large series (including topotypes) of P. boliviana. We show broadly overlapping ranges in the ratio of head length/width between P. boliviana and P. mirandae. Also, both taxa share a character state (a tubercle on the heel) that was previously considered autapomorphic for P. boliviana. Additionally, we document a number of omissions and errors in the original description of P. mirandae including comparisons with P. boliviana. Our analyses provide evidence suggesting that P. mirandae is a junior synonym of P. boliviana.

We tested tongue-flicking responses to food chemicals and control stimuli in the Texas Horned Lizard (Phrynosoma cornutum) by presenting chemical stimuli on cotton swabs. No evidence of discrimination between prey chemicals (from the ant Pogonomyrmex rugosus), plant chemicals (romaine lettuce), cologne, and distilled water via the lingual-vomeronasal system was detected despite extremely high statistical power. We conclude that P. cornutum does not use tongue flicking to sample chemicals to permit detection and identification of food. Horned lizards forage by moving between ant colonies, capturing numerous ants at each colony by lingual prehension. Because ants are abundant above ground and mobile, visual search may suffice. Despite the absence of evidence for prey chemical discrimination, the lizards tongue flicked up to 15 times in a 60-sec trial. Because horned lizards do not usually enter crevices likely to contain predators and because they rely on crypsis to avoid detection, they are presumably less likely than lizards such as skinks, lacertids, and geckos to use vomerolfaction to detect predators' chemicals. However, horned lizards tongue flick each other during courtship. Therefore, the primary adaptive use of tongue flicking may be for pheromonal communication.

Knowing what venomous snakes eat is relevant both to their conservation and to understanding the functional diversity of their venom proteins. We used fecal samples to quantify the diet of Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnakes (Sistrurus catenatus catenatus) in Ontario and Ohio. Small mammals comprised almost the entire diet of both populations, collectively comprising 13 species, five of which were common to both populations. Consistent with their habitat use, Ontario snakes ate both forest and field mammals. The unexpected occurrence of Eastern Chipmunks (Tamias striatus) in the Ohio samples suggested that those snakes either moved out of the fields in which they were caught to feed, or encountered chipmunks dispersing along fencerows. Large snakes did not drop small prey species from their diets and the occurrence of large prey species in diets indicates that juvenile small mammals are important prey. Limited effects of snake size on diet composition suggest that ontogenetic shifts in venom composition are unlikely to occur in the Eastern Massasauga. The similarity of diets between populations makes it unlikely that populations differ in venom composition because of local adaptation of venom proteins to different suites of prey.

The genus Simophis includes Brazilian and Paraguayan colubrid snakes with color patterns mimetic with triad-banded coral snakes of the genus Micrurus. Currently Simophis is thought to include two species: Simophis rhinostoma, described from Brazil and recorded in the literature from Paraguay, and Simophis rohdei, considered to be a Paraguayan endemic. The species are differentiated by the number of scale rows at midbody (15 in S. rhinostoma and 17 in S. rohdei) and the number of supralabial scales (7 in S. rhinostoma and 8 in S. rohdei). A review of specimens from Paraguay and Brazil indicate variation in the number of supralabial scales, and a reexamination of the holotype of Rhinaspis rohdei showed that it actually has 15 middorsal scale rows and not 17 as was indicated in the original description. A single specimen from Brasilia has 17 dorsal scale rows. The genus Simophis must be considered to be monotypic (S. rhinostoma), having 15 dorsal scale rows (rarely 17) and between 7 and 9 supralabials (rarely 5). The species has a unique combination of characters, some associated with arboreality (slender body, long tail, laterally keeled ventral scales), and one found in fossorial snakes (shovel-shaped rostral).

The Lesser Siren (Siren intermedia) is a fully aquatic salamander with functionally limited overland dispersal. Details of the ecology of this species throughout its geographic range and diversity of habitats are limited. In this study, I investigated the ecology of a presumably isolated population of S. intermedia in eastern Texas. The conservative estimated population density was 0.33 sirens/m² with a standing crop biomass of 9.66 g/m². Growth rates averaged 0.022 mm/day in total length, slightly slower than other populations. Growth rate was not significantly different between males and females, nor was it correlated with size. The diet of the study population included at least 10 different taxa, of which tadpoles and snails (Order Basommatophora) were the most important prey. Like other populations, activity was highest during late winter and early spring, which coincides with the breeding season. The abundance of siren captures was weakly influenced by water temperature but not correlated with precipitation. Bite marks are hypothesized to be a result of siren courtship behavior. The abundance of males and females captured with fresh bite marks was significantly correlated with the number of gravid females. Because sirens are predatory generalists and represent a significant proportion of biomass in many aquatic environments, it is important to understand siren ecology throughout its geographic range and broad use of habitat types.

Atractus bocki was described based on a single specimen from the Cochabamba region in Bolivia, and since its original description, there have been no further records for the species. During the examination of Argentinean and Bolivian collections, we found four additional specimens of this poorly known snake. In this paper, we describe these individuals and report new data on meristic and morphometric variation for A. bocki. We also evaluate the taxonomic status of Atractus canedii and propose its synonymy with A. bocki.

Roads cause direct mortality of animals, but less is known about how this mortality translates into changes in populations. This is particularly true for snakes, which have been subject to little research at the population level compared to other taxa. We studied the effects of proximity to a heavily traveled road on snake populations in three old-field sites at Cicero Swamp Wildlife Management Area in Cicero, New York. We conducted 26 surveys of snakes from June to August 2006 on a regular grid of cover boards at different distances from the road and nearest forest edge and measured the microclimate at each cover board. Adult Common Gartersnakes, Thamnophis sirtalis, and Northern Brown Snakes, Storeria dekayi dekayi, occurred independently of distance from the road but were more abundant farther from the forest edge. The lack of a “road effect” was surprising, given that both species of snakes have been shown to be prone to road-mortality in previous studies and could be caused by either snakes avoiding crossing roads or mortality events being rare. Increased abundance of snakes farther from the forest edge suggests that snakes prefer sites that receive direct sunlight for longer periods of the day. Our study indicates that snake abundance is not necessarily influenced by proximity to roads and that the location of other habitat edges such as a forest-grassland interface may be a more important driver of patterns of spatial distribution.