Most of the evidence for the deleterious effects of parasites on performance and body condition in their hosts results from experimental infection using one species of parasite. However, hosts in the field are normally infected by multiple parasite species present in different organs. We investigated the relationship between intensity of different parasites and several phenotypic characters of adult males of Rhinella icterica (Cururu Toad) captured in the field. We predicted that toads with higher parasite intensity would show lower locomotor performance, higher standard rates of oxygen consumption, poorer body-condition indices, and larger kidney, intestine, heart, lung, and liver masses. We found that these hosts were infected by six different species of parasites, with a dominance of monoxenous nematodes and no correlation between intensities of different parasites. Rhabdias fuelleborni was the only parasite associated with variation in a host's phenotype. Individuals of R. icterica with higher lung parasite intensity showed lower locomotor performance and had larger intestines and kidneys. Individuals with higher parasite intensity did not show poorer body condition or higher standard metabolic rates, suggesting that parasite intensity in the field was not associated with large changes in energy stores and that the relationship between parasite intensity and host performance remains nonsignificant during conditions of low energy demand.

A maioria das evidências dos efeitos deletérios de parasitas no desempenho e condição corpórea do hospedeiro resulta de infecções experimentais usando uma única espécie de parasita. Contudo, os hospedeiros na natureza são infectados, normalmente, por múltiplas espécies de parasitas, presentes em diversos órgãos. Nós investigamos a relação entre intensidade de diferentes parasitas e diversos caracteres fenotípicos de machos adultos de Rhinella icterica capturados na natureza. Nós presumimos que os sapos com maior intensidade parasitária mostrariam menor desempenho locomotor, maior taxa de consumo de oxigênio em repouso, pior condição corpórea e maior massa dos rins, intestinos, coração, pulmões e fígado. Nós encontramos que os hospedeiros são infectados por seis diferentes espécies de parasitas, com uma dominância de nematódeos monóxenos, contudo sem correlações entre as intensidades dos diferentes parasitas. Rhabdias fuelleborni foi o único parasita associado com variações fenotípicas do hospedeiro. Indivíduos de R. icterica com maior intensidade de parasitas pulmonares tiveram menor desempenho locomotor e maior massa dos intestinos e rins. Indivíduos com maior intensidade parasitária não tiveram pior condição corpórea ou maiores taxas de consumo de oxigênio em repouso, sugerindo que a intensidade parasitária na natureza não está associada com grandes alterações em reservas energéticas, e que a relação entre intensidade parasitária e o desempenho do hospedeiro não é significativa durante condições de baixa demanda energética.

The tadpole of Ptychadena uzungwensis is described from material collected at Mufindi, southern Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania. We provide a detailed description of the tadpole based on an ontogenetic series, including color photographs of living specimens and buccopharyngeal morphology. Identity was confirmed by rearing tadpoles through metamorphosis and through DNA bar coding. The tadpole has a keratodont formula of 1/2 and generally resembles other species of Ptychadena. Diagnostic features of known tadpoles of East African species of Ptychadena are provided and discussed.

Approximately one-third of amphibian species are experiencing population declines. Among the most affected groups are the Harlequin frogs (Bufonidae: Atelopus), nearly all of which are threatened with extinction. We monitored one of the last known Ecuadorian populations of Atelopus spumarius (Pebas Stubfoot Toad) with a mark–recapture survey between February 2009 and December 2010. We aimed to determine the effect of the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), previously recorded at the site, on population size and survival. We also analyzed the effect of selective logging which occurred along the transect in April 2010. We tested every individual captured or recaptured for Bd presence using end-point PCR. All 679 Bd swabs (from 356 individuals) were negative, suggesting that Bd did not influence population size and survival. Population size increased during the first 9 months of the study (August 2009–April 2010), from an estimated 47 to 92 individuals, but then decreased by November 2010 to an estimated 48 individuals. Probability of survival was 0.13 lower in months following selective logging compared to previous months; emigration decreased by 0.37 after the logging event. Pairs in amplexus were found between April and December, suggesting a long, if not year-round, reproductive period. Although most Atelopus spp. declines have been attributed to Bd, we present a case in which Bd has been detected in the area yet changes in population size cannot be attributed to chytridiomycosis. Analyses of survival and male body condition index suggest that the decline at the end of the study was the result of habitat destruction.

Aproximadamente un tercio de las especies de anfibios experimentan declives poblacionales. Entre los grupos más afectados están las ranas Arlequín (Bufonidae: Atelopus), casi todas se encuentran en peligro de extinción. Monitoreamos el tamaño poblacional y la supervivencia de una de las últimas poblaciones ecuatorianas de Atelopus spumarius con un muestreo de marca-recaptura entre Febrero 2009 y Diciembre 2010. Debido a que Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) había sido previamente registrado en el sitio, quisimos determinar su efecto en el tamaño poblacional y supervivencia. También analizamos el efecto de tala selectiva, la cual ocurrió a lo largo del transecto en Abril 2010. Diagnosticamos la presencia de Bd en cada individuo capturado o recapturado usando PCR de punto final. Las 679 muestras de Bd (provenientes de 356 individuos) fueron negativas, sugiriendo que Bd no influenció el tamaño poblacional y la supervivencia. El tamaño poblacional aumentó durante los nueve primeros meses del estudio (julio 2009–abril 2010) de un estimado de 47 a 92 individuos pero luego disminuyó en noviembre de 2010 a 48 individuos. La probabilidad de supervivencia fue 0.13 más baja en los meses posteriores a la tala selectiva que en los meses previos; emigración también disminuyó por 0.37 en los últimos meses. Parejas en amplexus fueron encontradas entre abril y diciembre, sugiriendo un período reproductivo largo, o incluso de duración anual. Aunque la mayoría de declives de Atelopus han sido atribuidos a infecciones de Bd, presentamos un caso en el que Bd ha sido detectado en el área, pero los cambios en el tamaño de la población no pueden ser atribuidos a quitridiomicosis. Análisis de supervivencia y del índice de la condición corporal en machos sugiere que el declive al final del estudio fue resultado de la destrucción del hábitat.

We used GPS-based radiotelemetry to quantify diel activity patterns and movements by two species of large scincid lizards in the Australian wet-dry tropics. From an average of 63 days tracking of 54 Northern Bluetongues (Tiliqua scincoides intermedia) and 42 days tracking of 8 Centralian Bluetongues (Tiliqua multifasciata), we obtained 53,801 and 8,139 data points, respectively, on lizard locations over a 13-month period. Lizard species, sex, and study site had relatively little effect on distances moved, at both daily and hourly levels. However, Northern Bluetongues moved further per day than did Centralian Bluetongues at a site where they were sympatric. Most movements were <20 m, with longer movements (dispersal between core areas within the wider home range) occurring primarily during midmorning and late afternoon. The only major effect of ambient temperatures on lizard activity patterns likely was that midday movements were precluded by the risk of overheating; at all other times of the day and night, temperatures remained within a range that enabled effective locomotion and foraging. Thus, thermal constraints of the timing and extent of movements are less important in this system than in the cool-temperate squamate species that have been the focus of most previous research on this topic.

The degree to which microhabitat elements such as shade from shrubs are used by lizards and the relative importance of such factors compared to others (e.g., prey availability) remains poorly understood. We examined habitat associations of Desert Horned Lizards (Phrynosoma platyrhinos) to evaluate the determinants of lizard occurrence using surveys along a shrub-steppe bajada in northwestern Utah. We then examined microhabitat preferences of lizards maintained in an experimental arena to explore further the potentially influential factors explaining habitat choice. Greater shrub cover, open understory, and greater cover by cryptobiotic soil crusts were the best predictors of lizard occurrence. While the role of soil crusts is unclear, these other factors may benefit lizards by providing open space for unhindered locomotion and opportunities for temperature regulation through sun/shade shuttling and burrowing. In contrast ants, a primary food source, did not appear to be a significant determinant of P. platyrhinos occurrence. Within the experimental arena, lizards preferred high-shade microhabitats during the day (82% of day selections) and demonstrated strong preference for microhabitats with soil mounds overall (85% of selections). Soil mounds, which form naturally beneath shrubs, tended to warm more quickly in the morning when lizards basked to elevate body temperature, remained cooler in the early evening when high temperatures persisted, and were used as midday and overnight burrow sites. Findings from these studies highlight the important role of abiotic factors associated with vegetation as strong determinants of habitat selection by P. platyrhinos.

Body sizes and morphological traits of animals are often strongly influenced by their diet. Several studies have shown this to be true for snakes and have linked intraspecific differences in these attributes to geographic and sexual variations in prey sizes and diet. To help clarify anecdotal reports of morphological variation among populations of Green Pythons (Morelia viridis), we assessed geographic and sexual variations in the body size, morphology, and diet of 908 individuals from five sites in Australia and New Guinea. Body sizes and morphology differed among populations and, although some variation could be explained by sampling biases, we found no significant geographic dietary variation to help explain these differences. Juvenile Green Pythons preyed exclusively on small lizards and adults preyed on mammals, while birds comprised only 2.5% of all dietary records. Within all populations females grow to larger body sizes, although we observed little sexual dimorphism in other traits. Males and females selected the same prey types. However, large females, despite their larger overall size, consumed a greater proportion of small, diurnal prey (lizards and birds) than did males, suggesting a niche divergence. Although the two New Guinean mainland populations of Green Python are the most genetically divergent from one another, they are the most morphologically similar. Our data provide weak evidence to reject nonadaptive processes as creating geographic variations in the body sizes and morphology of Green Pythons and suggest that a better understanding of the relative importance of different prey may elucidate the mechanisms involved.

We present data on habitat use, activity, sexual dimorphism, reproduction, and diet of Bothrops itapetiningae, a species endemic to the Brazilian Cerrado. Habitat use was studied through active search techniques in several areas from July 1997 to July 2000. Diet, reproduction, activity, and sexual dimorphism were studied through the analysis of specimens deposited in Brazilian museums. Annual activity was inferred from collection records grouped by month and season. The specimens were sexed by direct observation of gonads and sexual dimorphism was assessed using morphological data. The reproductive cycle of the species was studied by analyzing the number of vitellogenic and nonvitellogenic follicles, ova, and embryos by month. The diet was determined by analyzing stomach and digestive tract contents. The species is a habitat specialist, associated with open cerrado grasslands, and is active more frequently during the rainy season (October to March). Males have longer tails whereas females have longer heads. The reproductive cycle is seasonal and probably biennial, with births (5.8 ± 2.9 embryos) occurring during the rainy season. Diet is of a generalist, but mammals are important items for both sexes and all age classes. Bothrops itapetiningae is among the smaller Brazilian pit vipers. Its low fecundity, high habitat specialization, and sensitivity to human disturbances, along with the high level of threat to its natural grassland habitat in the Brazilian Cerrado, makes this a potentially threatened snake. Knowledge of its biology is fundamental to conserving and managing this species.

Apresentamos informações sobre uso de habitat, atividade, dimorfismo sexual, reprodução e dieta da cotiarinha (Bothrops itapetiningae), espécie endêmica do Cerrado Brasileiro. O uso de habitat foi estudado com base em diversas técnicas de buscas ativas ao longo de várias áreas de Cerrado, de julho de 1997 a julho de 2000. A atividade, reprodução, dimorfismo sexual e dieta foram estudadas através da análise de espécimes depositados em diversos museus brasileiros. O padrão anual de atividades de foi inferido a partir dos registros de coleta agrupados por mês e por estação. Os espécimes foram sexados pela observação direta das gônadas, dados morfológicos foram registrados para analisar o dimorfismo sexual. O ciclo reprodutivo da espécie foi estudado através da análise do número de folículos vitelogênicos e não vitelogênicos, óvulos e embriões por mês. Informações sobre dieta foi obtida por dissecção do estômago e trato digestivo. A espécie é especialista em habitat, associada a campos abertos de planalto e é ativa mais frequentemente durante a estação chuvosa (outubro a março). Os machos têm caudas mais longas, enquanto que as fêmeas têm cabeças maiores. O ciclo reprodutivo é sazonal com nascimentos (5,8 ± 2,9 embriões) ocorrendo durante a estação chuvosa. A dieta é generalista, mas mamíferos são itens importantes na dieta de ambos os sexos e classes etárias. Bothrops itapetiningae possui baixa fecundidade, alta especialização habitat e alta sensibilidade a distúrbios humanos. Juntamente com o alto nível de ameaça de seus habitats naturais, torna-se uma prioridade conhecer melhor sua biologia para o seu manejo e conservação.

Natural variation in stable isotope ratios is a useful tool in diet studies. However, the correct interpretation of isotopic data is reliant on proper estimates of discrimination factors. This study aimed to describe the magnitude of the discrimination factors of carbon and nitrogen isotopes between diet and tissues (Δ¹³C_tissue-diet and Δ¹⁵N_tissue-diet) of the Broad-snouted Caiman (Caiman latirostris) and to verify potential differences between age classes. The isotopic ratios of carbon and nitrogen (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) were determined in samples of two tissue types (claw and scute) collected from 18 captive animals and in 15 samples of their diet. The Δ¹³C_tissue-diet was 1.2 ± 0.1 ‰ for claw and 0.9 ± 0.2‰ for scutes; the Δ¹⁵N_tissue-diet was 1.1 ± 0.1‰ for claw and 0.8 ± 0.2‰ for scutes. These values were much lower than the values assumed commonly in ecological studies (3–5‰), and similar to a previous study with crocodilians. Our results emphasize the need to determine discrimination factors specific to taxa instead of assuming average values derived from the literature.

Predation is one of the major causes of crocodilian egg mortality. Many studies have suggested that opening nests, handling eggs, and capturing attending females may increase predation rates, but the influence of such activities on nest predation has not been quantified. For that reason, we studied the impacts of different research activities on nests of wild Spectacled Caimans (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus) from a flooded forest (várzea) in the Piagaçu-Purus Sustainable Development Reserve, Central Amazonia. During the 2010 nesting season, predation on eggs in disturbed nests was generally higher than in nests without research activities found in the same area. However, natural predation rates in similar habitat were not significantly different, suggesting that predation rates on disturbed nests, though elevated, remain within the broad range found in undisturbed nests. We conclude that the benefits in knowledge gained from research activities will generally out-weigh the small increase in nest predation that could result from research activities.

A predação constitui uma das principais causas de mortalidade dos ovos em crocodilianos. Vários autores sugerem que o abrir os ninhos, manusear os ovos e capturar as respetivas fêmeas, poderá aumentar as taxas de predação. No entanto, o impacto destas atividades ainda não foi quantificado. Por esse motivo, nós estudamos diferentes níveis de impacto de pesquisa nos ninhos e respetivas fêmeas de jacaretinga (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus) na floresta de várzea da Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazónia Central. Durante a época de nidificação de 2010, a predação dos ovos em ninhos perturbados por actividades de pesquisa foi, de maneira geral, superior ao observado em ninhos não perturbados, encontrados no mesmo local. No entanto, as taxas de predação naturais em habitat semelhante não demonstraram ser significativamente diferentes, o que sugere que as taxas de predação em ninhos perturbados, mesmo apesar de elevadas, permanecem dentro do intervalo observado em ninhos não perturbados. Desta forma, concluímos que todo o conhecimento obtido durante actividades de pesquisa irá compensar a possibilidade de um pequeno aumento na predação dos ninhos, que poderá surgir em consequência de abrir os ninhos e manusear os ovos ou as fêmeas.

The Aspidoscelis cozumela complex of parthenogenetic lizards of the Yucatán Peninsula originated from hybridization between individuals of Aspidoscelis angusticeps (maternal) and Aspidoscelis deppii deppii (paternal) followed by postorigin clonal divergence. A previous report of histocompatibility between two members of the complex, Aspidoscelis maslini and Aspidoscelis cozumela, is reliable evidence that they share a single hybridization event. However, evidence from mitochondrial DNA and histoincompatibility has been used to conclude that another member of the complex, Aspidoscelis rodecki, originated from a separate hybridization event. Although future evidence might tip the balance in favor of a two-hybridization model, we provide examples where evidence from mtDNA and histoincompatibility probably led to incorrect predictions of the number of hybridization events in parthenogenetic Aspidoscelis. In this study, we compared correspondence between patterns of morphological and karyotypic divergence among A. cozumela, A. rodecki, and northern populations of A. maslini and progenitor species to two-hybridization and one-hybridization models. Although morphological and karyotypic patterns can be explained by either model, the most parsimonious alternative is a single hybridization event followed by postformational divergence.

El complejo Aspidoscelis cozumela de lagartijas partenogenéticas de la Península de Yucatán se originó de la hibridación entre individuos de Aspidoscelis angusticeps (especie materna) y Aspidoscelis deppii deppii (especie paterna) seguida por una divergencia clonal postorigen. Un reporte previo de histocompatibilidad entre dos miembros de este complejo, Aspidoscelis maslini y Aspidoscelis cozumela, es una evidencia confiable de que ellos comparten un evento de hibridación único. Sin embargo, evidencia de ADN mitocondrial e histoincompatibilidad ha sido utilizada para concluir que otro miembro de este complejo, Aspidoscelis rodecki, se originó de un evento de hibridación separado. Aunque evidencias futuras podrían inclinar la balanza en favor de un modelo de dos-hibridaciones, proporcionamos ejemplos donde evidencias de ADN mitocondrial e histoincompatibilidad probablemente conducen a predicciones incorrectas del número de eventos de hibridación en Aspidoscelis partenogenéticos. En este estudio, comparamos correspondencia entre patrones de divergencia morfológica y cariotípica entre A. cozumela, A. rodecki, y poblaciones del norte de A. maslini y especies progenitoras de modelos de dos-hibridaciones y una-hibridación. Aunque patrones morfológicos y cariotípicos pueden ser explicados por cualquiera de estos dos modelos, la alternativa más parsimoniosa es un evento único de hibridación seguido de divergencia postformativa.

The most recent taxonomic revision of the Aspidoscelis hyperythra complex of teiid lizards from Baja California referred all peninsular populations to A. hyperythra and recognized five insular populations as species based on their diagnosability and allopatric distributions. We used multivariate analyses of seven quantitative morphological characters to determine relative distinctiveness and divergence among these populations and the four geographically closest peninsular populations of A. hyperythra. The two northernmost insular species, Aspidoscelis picta (Isla Monserrate) and Aspidoscelis carmenensis (Isla Carmen) were significantly more divergent than were Aspidoscelis danheimae (Isla San José), Aspidoscelis franciscensis (Isla San Francisco), Aspidoscelis espiritensis (Islas Espiritu Santo and Partida Sur), and peninsular samples of A. hyperythra. Divergence information from mtDNA sequence variation divided the five insular species into the same high-divergence/low-divergence groups. We present new testable hypotheses relating to relative times of colonization and peninsular location of the source population of island colonists.

La revisión taxonómica más reciente del complejo Aspidoscelis hyperythra de lagartijas teidas de Baja California considera a todas las poblaciones peninsulares como A. hyperythra y reconoce cinco poblaciones insulares como especies basándose sobre en características diagnósticas y distribuciones alopátricas. Utilizamos análisis multivariado de siete características morfológicas cuantitativas para determinar la diferencia y divergencia relativas entre estas poblaciones y las cuatros poblaciones peninsulares más cercanas geográficamente de A. hyperythra. Las dos especies insulares más septentrionales, Aspidoscelis picta (Isla Monserrate) y Aspidoscelis carmenensis (Isla Carmen) fueron significativamente más divergentes que Aspidoscelis danheimae (Isla San José), Aspidoscelis franciscensis (Isla San Francisco), Aspidoscelis espiritensis (Islas Espíritu Santo y Partida Sur), y muestras peninsulares de A. hyperythra. Información sobre la divergencia de estas especies a partir de variación en las secuencias de ADN mitocondrial dividió las cinco especies insulares en los mismos grupos de alta-divergencia/baja-divergencia. Presentamos nuevas hipótesis comprobables sobre los tiempos relativos de colonización y ubicación peninsular de las poblaciones fuente que colonizaron las islas.

Despite the general importance of nest site choice in reproductive success in taxa with little or no parental care, little is known for reptiles other than turtles. Here we report on the nesting ecology of the Yellow-Spotted Monitor, Varanus panoptes, a large tropical lizard that utilizes warrens (concentrated groups of burrows) in northern Australia. We used radio-telemetry, remote photography, and the complete excavation of a warren to test the hypotheses that 1) warrens are used by multiple individual V. panoptes; and if so, 2) they are used for communal nesting; or alternatively 3) they are used for communal estivation during the dry season. At least six individual V. panoptes utilized the warren system including four females and two males, and burrows were excavated by both sexes. Excavation of the warren revealed no estivating lizards at a time when four radio-telemetered V. panoptes had begun estivation. However, we found two nests in the warren, indicative of either communal nesting or multiple clutches of the same female. Nests were deeper than that recorded for any other reptile and were structurally complex. We discuss the implications of the depth and structure of the nesting burrow for the thermal and hydric environment of the eggs and for hatchling emergence. The warren's usage by multiple individuals raises the possibility that the severe declines in V. panoptes caused by invasive Cane Toads (Bufo marinus) may have important implications for the V. panoptes social structure.

A newly discovered population of Red-bellied Newts (Taricha rivularis) in the Stevens Creek watershed in Santa Clara County, California, represents a significant southerly range extension of this species, by approximately 130 km from the nearest records in Sonoma County, California. To investigate the origin of this population we sequenced two mitochondrial genes (ND1, cytochrome b) and one nuclear exon (POMC) from the Santa Clara County population and from the main portion of the range including Sonoma, Mendocino, and Humboldt Counties. Phylogenetic relationships, historical demography, and genetic diversity were used to infer the origin of the newly discovered population and to elucidate the evolutionary history of the species. This species exhibits the lowest genetic diversity of any salamander in coastal California, and we infer unique signatures of population expansion not found in sympatrically occurring salamander species. The newly discovered population, characterized by a ubiquitous mtDNA haplotype found throughout the main range, is not genetically divergent. Although we were unable to determine whether the Santa Clara population is natural or introduced, we consider it to be of potential conservation significance and to warrant management protection. Although it may be unconventional to protect a population that is possibly introduced, this newly discovered population might be a critical assurance colony that will aid in the long-term persistence of this declining species. Because T. rivularis lacks genetic variation, has a small geographic range, and has experienced high levels of habitat disturbance, we recommend that it receive protection throughout its range.

Human activities in the Bahamas and other oceanic islands have damaged terrestrial ecosystems irreparably through the extinction of indigenous species. Tortoise and crocodile bones from Abaco Island in the Bahamas sampled for ¹⁴C-dating revealed a small overlap between the last occurrence of these large reptiles and early human settlement in the Bahamas. Before their extermination approximately 1,000 years ago, the dominant herbivore and carnivore on Abaco Island were the endemic Albury's Tortoise (Chelonoidis alburyorum) and the formerly widespread Cuban Crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer). Stable isotope data from carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) in bone collagen from Late Holocene fossils suggest that these large reptiles were part of a terrestrial rather than marine or estuarine food web. Our proposal that Cuban Crocodiles were once the apex terrestrial predator in the Bahamas is supported by comparisons with published δ¹³C values for modern marine/estuarine crocodylians as compared to those of nonmarine reptilian and mammalian carnivores. For reptiles to occupy terrestrial trophic roles distinguishes Bahamian Islands from nearby Greater Antillean Islands (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico) where endemic mammals represent the largest herbivores and carnivores in prehuman times. This distinction is even greater when compared with Late Quaternary mammals of prehuman vertebrate communities in neighboring North America.

Efficient foraging may be facilitated by attending to the signals produced by potential prey items. Such predatory eavesdropping is taxonomically widespread, yet there is currently a dearth of information for amphibians. Anuran amphibians, with their highly developed auditory system and robust phonotaxis toward advertisement calls when searching for mates, seem predisposed to use this hearing capability in other behavioral contexts such as foraging. We conducted playback experiments to test whether Green Treefrogs (Hyla cinerea) eavesdrop on sexual signals of prey (House Cricket [Achaeta domesticus] song), or whether the presentation of acoustic prey stimuli in addition to a live cricket improved prey localization. We found that frogs did not use acoustic prey signals to guide their foraging movements. Frogs were not indifferent to acoustic stimuli, however, because they moved away from the sound source in some treatments.

We describe a new species of Leptopelis from the L. modestus complex. The new species is described from forest and lacustrine habitats of the Albertine Rift of Central Africa, is superficially similar to topotypic L. modestus from Cameroon, but it is distinguished by advertisement call, morphology, and sequences of 16S, cyt b, and RAG1. The new species is yet another amphibian that occurs in the Itombwe Plateau, further solidifying the position of the plateau as an area of conservation concern.

The Gladiator Frog, Bokermannohyla ibitiguara, is a hylid endemic to the Brazilian Cerrado with a complex call composed of long and short notes. We describe the influence of male size and temperature on call properties and investigate the social contexts of the different notes of the call through direct observations and playback experiments conducted in the field. The dominant frequency correlated negatively with male body size, whereas the duration of the long note correlated positively; there was no correlation between pulse rate and male body size. Air temperature correlated negatively with the duration of the long note and positively with pulse rate. Playback experiments with males indicated that they did not change the proportion of long to short notes in the presence of an intruder (= playback), but rather, they changed the short notes, which became longer, with a lower dominant frequency and more pulses with variable intervals. We interpreted this call as an aggressive call. Our results suggest that females may choose males based on dominant frequency and duration of the long note, traits that might be under sexual selection. Moreover, short notes appear to be the territorial component of the mixed call, and the aggressive call is a variation of this component.

Bokermannohyla ibitiguara é um hilídeo endêmico do Cerrado brasileiro que possui um canto complexo, composto de notas longas e curtas. Neste estudo, descrevemos a influência do tamanho do macho e da temperatura do ar nas propriedades acústicas do canto, investigando também os contextos sociais das diferentes notas através de observações diretas e experimentos de playback conduzidos no campo. O tamanho do macho correlacionou-se negativamente com frequência dominante do canto e positivamente com duração da nota longa; não houve correlação com taxa de pulsos. A temperatura do ar correlacionou-se negativamente com duração da nota longa e positivamente com a taxa de pulsos. Os experimentos de playback mostraram que machos não alteram a proporção de emissão de notas curtas e longas na presença de um intruso (= playback); ao invés disso, machos modificam as notas curtas, tornando-as mais longas, com frequência dominante mais baixa e com mais pulsos com intervalos variáveis. Nós interpretamos tal canto como sendo o canto agressivo. Nossos resultados sugerem que, potencialmente, as fêmeas podem escolher os machos avaliando a frequência dominante do canto e a duração da nota longa, características que podem estar sob seleção sexual. Além disso, as notas curtas parecem ser o componente territorial do canto misto, sendo o canto agressivo uma variação de tal componente.

We evaluated trends in occupancy of the Cheat Mountain Salamander (Plethodon nettingi) over a 32-yr period and examined the potential influence of competition by sympatric salamander species on these changes. We conducted surveys at 36 locations along four transects on an elevational gradient in the Appalachian Mountains geographic province of West Virginia, USA. We used occupancy modeling to examine patterns in species distributions for three focal species: P. nettingi, a federally threatened species, the Eastern Red-Backed Salamander (Plethodon cinereus), and the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus). The probability of occupancy for P. nettingi was considerably lower in 2011 compared to 1978–79 at medium and high elevations (1,169–1,378 m). Additionally, occupancy of P. nettingi was associated negatively with P. cinereus at the highest elevations. These data suggest that these P. nettingi populations have declined and P. cinereus have possibly expanded their vertical distribution. Thus, P. cinereus may be negatively affecting mid- and high-elevation populations of P. nettingi. Alternatively, environmental changes (e.g., habitat disturbance and altered weather patterns) may have contributed to declines of P. nettingi at mid- and high-elevation sites, facilitated by colonization by P. cinereus. Due to the endemic and federally threatened status of P. nettingi, conservation efforts to avoid fragmentation of P. nettingi habitat should be maintained and possibly enhanced, as ecological impacts of environmental changes can be exacerbated in high-elevation habitats.

In this study, we evaluated how different lizard species were distributed in a fragmented Atlantic Forest landscape and the influence of landscape metrics on lizard species richness in sampled fragments. We sampled (between July 2007 and March 2010) three continuous forest sites of the Reserva Ecológica de Guapiaçu (REGUA), 12 forest fragments of different sizes and five pasture matrix areas. We recorded 8 lizard species, the most abundant being Ecpleopus gaudichaudii and Enyalius brasiliensis. Species richness in the continuous forest sites (N = 4) was lower than in the set of fragments (N = 8); fragments harbored both typical forest species and more generalist species. The forest areas differed in the composition of lizard species, with continuous forest sites having a composition similar to each other and to larger fragments, whereas the smaller fragments differed from the larger fragments but showed similarity to each other. These data indicated that fragment size (area) can be an important factor for the maintenance of lizard species diversity in fragmented Atlantic Forest landscapes.

Neste estudo avaliamos como as diferentes espécies de lagartos estavam distribuídas em uma paisagem fragmentada de Mata Atlântica e a influência das métricas da paisagem sobre a riqueza de espécies de lagartos nos fragmentos amostrados. Amostramos (entre julho de 2007 e março de 2010) três localidades de floresta contínua da Reserva Ecológica de Guapiaçu (REGUA), 12 fragmentos florestais de diferentes tamanhos e cinco áreas de matriz de pasto. No total, registramos 8 espécies de lagartos e as mais abundantes foram Ecpleopus gaudichaudii e Enyalius brasiliensis. A riqueza de espécies encontrada nos sítios de floresta continua (N = 4) foi menor do que a encontrada no conjunto de fragmentos (N = 8), o que pode ser explicado pelo conjunto de fragmentos abrigarem tanto espécies típicas de hábitats florestais quanto espécies mais generalistas. As áreas de floresta diferiram em relação à composição de espécies, com os sítios de floresta contínua tendo uma composição similar entre si e com os maiores fragmentos, enquanto que os menores fragmentos mostraram maior similaridade entre si. Esses dados indicam que o tamanho do fragmento (área) pode ser um importante fator para a manutenção da diversidade de espécies de lagartos em paisagens fragmentadas de Mata Atlântica.

The genus Paratelmatobius includes species that are usually rare and with limited distribution. As a result, data on natural history and larval morphology are still relatively scarce for some species. Here, we describe the tadpole of Paratelmatobius gaigeae and provide data on the reproductive biology and vocalization of the species. Both ecological and morphological features of the tadpole of P. gaigeae are similar to other tadpoles of the genus. The tadpole of P. gaigeae belongs to the exotrophic and benthic guild, with an anteroventral mouth, dorsally located eyes, identical dental formulae to the other species of the genus, and a large gap without papillae on the rostral portion of the anterior labium. The advertisement call is very short, pulsed, and consisting of single notes.

O gênero Paratelmatobius inclui espécies usualmente raras e com distribuição limitada. Assim, dados sobre história natural e morfologia larval são ainda escassos para algumas de suas espécies. No presente trabalho nós descrevemos o girino de Paratelmatobius gaigeae e fornecemos dados sobre a biologia reprodutiva e a vocalização da espécie. A ecologia e a morfologia do girino de P. gaigeae são similares aos outros girinos do gênero. O girino de P. gaigeae pertence à guilda exotrófica e bêntica, com boca anteroventral, olhos posicionados dorsalmente, a mesma fórmula dentária das outras espécies do gênero e com um grande intervalo sem papilas na porção rostral do lábio anterior. O canto de anúncio é muito curto, pulsado e composto por notas isoladas.

We describe the larval morphology of Rhinella azarai, a medium-sized species of the Rhinella granulosa group. None of the morphological characters allow the larvae of R. azarai to be distinguished unequivocally from those of other species in the group. However, the tadpoles show a distinctive set of character states shared with some species of the group, which may represent putative synapomorphies of the R. granulosa group or internal clades.