Cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania tropica, transmitted by Phlebotomus sergenti and Phlebotomus arabicus, has been detected in Israel. This research strives to identify the complexity of temperature effects on vectors of L. tropica and to analyze seasonality and distribution across altitudinal levels. Sand fly trappings were conducted monthly during 2015-2016 in an endemic region for L. tropica in the eastern Galilee. Trappings were conducted in hyrax den sites across a broad topographic and climatic gradient. Using N-mixture models, we investigated the activity levels of sand flies as related to temporary and periodic climatic variables. We tested generality of climate-driven models using Root-Mean-Square Error (RMSE) values by comparing the 2015-2016 data with trapping data from 2013. P. sergenti activity was found to be positively and exponentially correlated with early night temperatures and more strongly correlated with average early-night temperatures for two weeks. P. arabicus exhibited a linear correlation with temperature. Climate-driven models for both species yielded lower RMSE values for the 2013 data, which validate the generality of the models. Considerable differences were found in slope coefficients of temperature effect on sand fly activity among sites related to elevation levels, implying differential local responses of sand flies to temperature.

Bromeliads serve as a key environmental resource for Aedes albopictus (Skuse) in some peridomestic landscapes and are not addressed through conventional source reduction. As an alternative, three handheld sprayers were evaluated in point-source applications of permethrin to bromeliads in Saint Augustine, FL. Each machine was screened for its utility in point-source harborage treatments, while we simultaneously evaluated bromeliad-focused treatments for reducing Ae. albopictus egg abundance in bromeliad plants. Semi-field tests against caged Ae. albopictus produced 100% mortality at 24 h with each sprayer. Three field sites were assigned to each machine and a control, and bromeliad residual applications of Aqualuer 20-20^® were assessed through egg surveillance using ovitraps both within and beyond 30 m of the treated bromeliad harborage. The treatment decreased Ae. albopictus egg abundance across the field sites for three weeks post-treatment with no significant differences among the equipment. Functional differences among machines, such as automated pressure control or leak guards on the nozzle, depend on the accessories that offer the greatest logistical benefit to the user. The field results suggest bromeliads are a viable target for harborage treatments. Selective treatments to bromeliads could offer a possible solution to containers that homeowners refuse to eliminate.

To explain the patchy distribution of West Nile virus (WNV), we propose that avian immunity encountered by Culex vectors regulates WNV transmission, particularly at communal bird roosts. To test this hypothesis, we selected two test sites with communally roosting American robins (Turdus migratorius) and two control sites that lacked communal roosts. The density of vector-vertebrate contacts, represented by engorged Culex pipiens, was 23-fold greater at test sites compared to control sites, and the density of blood-engorged Cx. pipiens measured in resting mosquito traps correlated positively with the presence of robins and negatively with the presence of other birds, confirming an attraction to robins for blood feeding. WNV transmission was alternately up-regulated (amplification) and down-regulated (suppression) at both test sites. At one test site, infection in resting Cx. pipiens surged from zero to 37.2 per thousand within four weeks, and robin immunity rose from 8.4% to 64% before reducing to 33%. At this site, ten potentially infectious contacts between vector and vertebrates (including nine robins and a mourning dove [Zenaida macroura]) were documented. Infectious vector-vertebrate contacts were absent from control sites. The use of infectious vector-vertebrate contacts, rather than infected mosquitoes, to evaluate a transmission focus is novel.

Malaria transmission in South America is overwhelmingly located in the Amazon region with limited cases outside that biome. A key factor in the mitigation of malaria transmission is the determination of vector diversity and bionomics in endemic areas. Anopheles mosquitoes were collected in four different landscapes of Cruzeiro do Sul-Acre, the current area with highest malaria transmission in Brazil. We performed adult mosquito collections every three months over two years and associated vector occurrence with local abiotic factors. A total of 1,754 Anopheles belonging to nine species were collected, but only four of them (An. albitarsis s.l. Lynch-Arribalzaga, An. braziliensis Chagas, An. peryassui Dyar and Knab, and An.triannulatus Neiva and Pinto) represented 77.1% of the total. Vector density and diversity was uneven across field sites and collection periods. Higher Anopheles abundance (54.8%) and richness were observed in a deforested palm tree area (IFC), with An. braziliensis the most frequent mosquito (40.5%). Only 7.3% of mosquitoes were collected in the SAB village, but 66.4% of them were An. darlingi and An. oswaldoi, species often regarded as primary and secondary vectors of malaria in the Amazon region. A distinct biting preference was observed between 18:00-19:40. The distance from the nearest breeding site and minimum temperature explained 41.6% of the Anopheles community composition. Our data show that the Anopheles species composition may present great variation on a microgeographic scale.

Karyotypes of Aedes (Culicidae) mosquitoes (Ae. excrucians, Ae. behningi, and Ae. euedes) have been analyzed using the metaphase chromosomes of imaginal discs. Lacto-aceto-orcein, C-banding, and DAPI staining have detected species-specific features in the morphology and lengths of these chromosomes in the examined species. Species-specific features of chromosome 1 in the location of hetero chromatin blocks have been shown. Thus, the metaphase chromosomes in the imaginal discs of Ae. excrucians, Ae. behningi, and Ae. euedes are a characteristic for species identification of mosquito species.

Mosquitoes use many cues to assess whether a habitat is conducive for reproduction, possibly including the presence of stimuli from aquatic macrophytes. The effect of water infusions of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), water lettuce (Pista stratioles), parrotfeather (Myriophyllum aquaticum), and water pennywort (Hydrocotyle umbellata) on mosquito oviposition and attraction was investigated. Gravid Culex quinquefasciatus deposited significantly more egg rafts in water hyacinth, water lettuce, or Bermuda hay (positive control) infusions compared to water, while water pennywort and parrotfeather infusions did not differ from water. In-flight attraction responses of Cx. quinquefasciatus, Aedes aegypti, and Anopheles quadrimaculatus were evaluated. The strongest attraction of gravid Cx. quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti occurred in the presence of volatiles from infusions of water hyacinth and water lettuce, which were equal in attractiveness to hay infusion. Water pennywort and parrotfeather infusions were not attractive. Gravid An. quadrimaculatus were not attracted to aquatic plant volatiles. The results suggest that water hyacinth and water lettuce emit volatile chemicals that attract two of three mosquito species tested and stimulate oviposition by Cx. quinquefasciatus, demonstrating that the level of attraction of aquatic plant volatiles varies among species in ways that may have relevance to bait-based detection and control methods.

Lucilia sericata is a facultative ectoparasite causing fly strike or myiasis in warm-blooded vertebrates. It is controlled by traps or insecticides, but both have drawbacks and alternative ways of control are urgently needed. Essential oils (EOs) of vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides), cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), and lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and their blends (OBs); OB1 (2 ml of each EO plus 4 ml of sunflower oil as a carrier) and OB2 (2 ml of each EO) were tested. Oils were tested at 5% for deterrence assays, and a dose response assay 0.01–0.6%, was conducted to determine forced-contact toxicity. We evaluated the efficacy of oils as oviposition deterrents, repellents/attractants, and their effects on mortality and longevity of adult L. sericata. Our data indicated that 0.2% EOs killed all flies by 5 min post-treatment and that vetiver oil greatly deterred flies from the oviposition medium and reduced adult longevity. Sunflower oil repelled all flies from ovipositing and greatly reduced the lifespan of treated adults. The blend of the four oils (OB1) had the greatest repellent effect on the flies. EOs have insecticidal, repellent, and oviposition-deterrent activities against L. sericata that could be used for suppression of blow fly populations.

Amblyomma americanum (L.), the lone star tick, is a vector of pathogens in humans and other animals throughout the United States. Our objective was to characterize how environmental factors influence patterns of A. americanum activity throughout its life cycle by creating statistical models that describe the number of active off-host larvae, nymphs, and adults in northeast Missouri from 2007 to 2013. Ticks were collected every other week from a permanent sampling grid in a second-growth forest and in an old field habitat. Each of the three life stage models considered six meteorological variables and one biotic variable. Regression modeling was used to make candidate models which were evaluated with eight selection criteria. Best-selected models were useful in describing seasonality and magnitude of A. americanum activity for larvae, nymphs, and adults. While distinct subsets of environmental variables were optimal in each life stage, all three models incorporated cumulative degree days, habitat, and number of ticks in the previous life stage. These models further elucidate how environmental and demographic factors influence patterns of host-seeking activity throughout the A. americanum life cycle, providing insight into how changing climate may impact risk of tick-borne pathogen transmission.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL), transmitted by the sand fly, Phlebotomus argentipes, is frequently reported on the Indian subcontinent where its basic ecology is largely unknown. Our objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of sugar solution (10%), containing colored food dye (0.5%) applied to peridomestic vegetation, to mark P. argentipes and subsequently estimate horizontal movement by capturing dye-marked specimens in CDC light traps in a village in Bihar, India. From September 30 to November 27, 2016, a total of 667 captured sand flies were successfully marked using sugar baits, of which 608 were P. argentipes (∼91.2%). Although the majority of P. argentipes were captured <100 m from the respective marking sites, a significantly greater proportion of females (15.7%) was captured >100 m from marking sites when compared to males (3.1%). Sand flies that ingested sugar bait were only collected from areas containing >eight vegetation types and mature banana plants. The average number of marked P. argentipes captured per trap-night (±SD) <100 m from respective marking sites was greatest in peridomestic vegetation (Males: 0.9 ± 1.97; Females: 0.63 ± 1.44), followed by areas with livestock (Males: 0.66 ± 2.75; Females: 0.24 ± 0.69), and areas with humans only (Males: 0.1 ± 0.36; Females: 0.11 ± 0.31). To our knowledge, this is the only study in Bihar in which sand flies have been marked with food dyes, and the results demonstrate the potential usefulness of food dyes in estimating short-term movement of P. argentipes. Limitations of this experiment are that the number of each trap location type, vegetation composition at marking sites, and distance of all trap sites from marking sites were not homogenous, and the total number of marked sand flies collected were relatively low. In spite of the above limitations, these data should prove useful in developing a large-scale study addressing the caveats. Results of such a study could provide important information regarding the dynamics of VL transmission and inspire managers to pursue alternative means of sand fly control on the Indian subcontinent.

There have been several important outbreaks of mosquito-borne diseases in the Neotropics in recent years, particularly in Brazil. Some taxa are also considered to be indicators of environmental health. Despite the importance of understanding insect abundance and distribution to the understanding of disease dynamics and design strategies to manage them, very little is known about their ecology in many tropical regions. We studied the abundance and diversity of mosquitoes and sand flies in the Bahia State of Brazil, a point of origin for arbovirus outbreaks, including Zika and Chikungunya fever. During 2009-2014, 51 mosquito taxa were identified, belonging to three dipteran families, Ceratopogonidae, Culicidae, and Psychodidae. The family Culicidae, including the Sabethini tribe, were the most abundant (81.5%) and most taxa-rich (n=45). While season (winter and summer) was a strong factor determinant of the occurrence of the most abundant taxa, the stratification level in the forest (ground or tree level) had a strong effect and the dominant taxa at ground level were completely different from the dominant species collected at tree level. We suggest that sites with a mix of forest and agroforestry systems support the highest biodiversity of hematophagous insects as compared to highly disturbed landscapes.

The horse flies of El Tarf Province, northeastern Algeria comprise 15 species within two subfamilies (Chrysopsinae and Tabaninae) belonging to five genera (Atylotus, Chrysops, Dasyrhamphis, Haematopota, and Tabanus). The genera Chrysops, Dasyrhamphis, and Haematopota are represented by two species for each, while the genera Atylotus and Tabanus are represented by four and five species, respectively. Seasonal abundance was assessed from mid-March until the end of September, 2017 for the trapped species. Haematopota pluvialis and Tabanus autumnalis appeared in April and lasted until September with a peak in May. Atylotus agrestis appeared in May with the highest density and lasted until September. Atylotus fulvus, Atylotus kroberi, and Haematopota italica emerged in April with peaks in May, while Chrysops flavipes appeared in March, reaching its peak in May and June, declining in July, and disappearing thereafter. Atylotus flavoguttatus, Chrysops mauritanicus, and Dasyrhamphis tomentosus appeared in April with a peak in June, then disappearing in August. Tabanus nemoralis started to appear in April with a peak in May and disappearance after July. Dasyrhamphis algirus, Tabanus bromius, and Tabanus eggeri started to appear in May. Both Tabanus eggeri and Dasyrhamphis algirus peaked in June and July, whereas T. eggeri lasted until the end of September. Tabanus tinctus was observed in June with a peak in August and lasted until September.

We evaluated the pathogenicity of the entomopathogenic nematodes native to Mexico, Heterorhabditis indica, Heterorhabditis sp. and Steinernema sp., towards M. domestica under controlled conditions. For adults, concentrations of 1,600 (A) and 1,200 (B) nematodes/ml were considered. For larvae, only the first concentration applied to filter paper, wheat bran, and peat moss as substrates was evaluated. An analysis of variance showed that the differences in adult mortality were only significant (p = 0.0001) among nematode species but not among concentrations within species. However, differences were significant (p = 0.0001) when data were analyzed when 50% of the individuals died (LT₅₀). For H. indica, the LT₅₀ were 46.5 h and 65.8 h for the concentrations A and B, respectively. Females were more susceptible than males. H. indica recorded the highest mortality, with 79.2% and 35.5% for females and males, respectively. Significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were recorded in larval mortality. H. indica induced the highest mortality (53.3%) when applied on peat moss. The results are a fundamental basis for future management studies of M. domestica by entomopathogenic nematodes.

An entomological study was conducted in a Leishmania infantum focus, including the identification of the sand fly species, the detection and the characterization of Leishmania DNA in female sand flies, and blood meal origins in engorged sand flies. A total of 643 sand flies (31% female, 69% male) was identified based on their morphological features or molecular markers. Ten different species were identified, with Phlebotomus perniciosus, the confirmed vector of L. infantum, being the most abundant (56%), P. papatasi in 25% of sand flies, the unique vector species of L. major, and P. longicuspis in 7% of cases, the suspected second vector of L. infantum. Moreover, the infection rate was 3.4% in P. perniciousus, P. papatasi, P. longicuspis, and Sergentomya minuta. Also, L. infantum was identified in five unfed P. perniciosus and two P. longicuspis. Our results suggest the vector role of P. perniciosus and P. longicuspis in the transmission cycle of L. infantum. The DNA of four mammalian species (human, rabbit, horse, and cow) was identified in the blood meals of sand flies, suggesting that these species are potential reservoirs of leishmaniasis, though it is not yet fully elucidated (especially for MON-24 and MON-80). We suggest the existence of different transmission cycles of L. infantum involving different species of sand flies and hosts.

Successful colonies of the biting midge Forcipomyia taiwana (Shiraki) were established and maintained in the laboratory by feeding blood with an artificial blood-feeding apparatus, rearing larvae on a soil substrate employing algae liquid, and setting suitable mating cages. The feeding rates of F. taiwana fed on pig blood (69.9%) and artificial blood (72.7%) were not significantly different from those fed on human blood (67.0%). The mean numbers of adults produced by females fed on the artificial blood and the human blood were 32.0 and 33.0, respectively. The algae liquid, Chlorella vulgaris, was suitable for rearing larvae, with larval hatching rate, pupation rate, and emergence rate of midges fed with artificial blood and human blood meal cohorts observed as 76.0%-88.8%, 98.2%-96.4%, and 98.0-94.3%, respectively. Swarming and copulation occurred 1 h before and 2 h after the lights were turned on (07:00-10:00). The average female mating rates were approximately 50-60%, and males were observed to mate with multiple females.