Pasteurella multocida, the cause of avian cholera, has naturally infected over 100 species of free-living birds. Among wild birds, avian cholera has its greatest impact on North American wildfowl. Epizootics usually are explosive in onset and may involve thousands of birds. The disease has been reported in every month of the year among wildfowl. Disproportionate mortality, with some species suffering proportionately greater mortality than others, has been a common feature of this disease. Presence of animal organic matter plays a significant role in the survival of P. multocida. There are conflicting reports or a lack of information on the role of host sex, age, body size, other physical features, genetic variation or behavioral differences, as predisposing factors to infection by P. multocida. There also are ambiguities on the relationship between season, precipitation, temperature, nutritional stress, water quality, other microorganisms, and environmental contaminants, and the occurrence of avian cholera in wildfowl. Two competing hypotheses for the year-round reservoir of wildfowl strains of P. multocida are ambient soil or water of enzootic sites, and carrier animals; most current evidence favors the role of carrier animals. Transmission most likely occurs by ingestion of contaminated water, inhalation of bacteriarich aerosols, or both. While many techniques have been proposed to prevent or control avian cholera, none have been rigorously tested to determine their effectiveness.

Haematological and serum biochemical values were measured in blood samples collected over a 12-mo period from 37 unsedated chital deer (Axis axis). Stags and hinds, ranging in age from birth to maturity, were sampled. Haemoglobin, total erythrocyte and haematocrit values were low at birth and sex differences were not apparent in neonates and juveniles, but were in adults. Chital stags had higher erythrocyte parameters (P < 0.001) and lower erythrocyte indices than hinds, and the total leucocyte count was higher in stags (P < 0.01). Some parameters (erythrocytes, muscle enzymes, glucose, cortisol) decreased over successive serial sampling. The differential leucocyte count of older stags decreased during the initial handling period. The major rutting period in February and March was characterised by changes in the differential leucocyte count, elevations in serum muscle enzymes, and lower serum cortisol levels. Alkaline phosphatase activity in serum reflected the annual antler cycle of chital stags. Serial sampling over many weeks, either weekly or tri-weekly, produced haematological and biochemical changes in successive samples which may have reflected a reduction in stress and excitement associated with restraint.

During winters 1987–1988 (I) and 1988–1989 (II), we assessed the physiological status of moose (Alces alces) residing on the west and east ends of Isle Royale (Michigan, USA) by collecting and chemically analyzing urine deposited in snow (snow-urine) from January to early March. Samples were assayed for urea nitrogen (U), sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P) and creatinine (C). Throughout both winters, elevated urinary U:C ratios in snowurine samples collected from east-end moose compared to west-end moose indicated greater dietary energy deprivation and accelerated net catabolism of endogenous protein. Sodium: C ratios were low throughout the study and were similar between moose from both ends of the island, except during the middle of winter I. Greater K:C, P:C and Ca:C ratios in east-end moose compared to west-end moose throughout winter I, and increases in these ratios and U:C in east-end moose from middle to late winter during the second year provided additional evidence of a greater deterioration in condition in east-end moose. The superior nutrition provided to moose on the west end of the island was associated with more developed soils and diverse vegetation and a lower stem density of balsam fir compared to the east end.

Normal hematological and blood chemistry parameters were measured in 45 American bison (Bison bison) that were divided into three age groups for comparison. There was a statistically significant (P < 0.05) increase with advancing age in mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, absolute neutrophil and eosinophil counts, total protein, globulin, creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen. There was a statistically significant (P < 0.05) decrease with advancing age in levels of sorbital dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, glucose, sodium, calcium and phosphorus.

Vaginal calculi have been described from the common (Delphinus delphis), Pacific white-sided (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens) and spotted (Stenella attenuata) dolphins. We describe additional calculi found in six sexually mature D. delphis from southern California. Three calculi were large (ca. 7×5 cm), exhibited concentric layer crystallization, and were unique from previously published descriptions. One calculus described previously and one in our sample appeared to be a fetal skeleton and skull respectively. Using CAT scans of a first trimester northern right whale dolphin (Lissodelphis borealis) and of a near term Delphinus delphis, we discuss the potential origin and development of vaginal calculi through analysis of ossification in embryonic delphinids. We hypothesize that the calculi represented spontaneous incomplete abortion with retention of part or all of the fetus in the distal reproductive tract. The form of the calculus relates to the degree of skeletal development at the time of fetal death. Calculi from a pregnant dolphin provided one measure of residence time.

Thirty laboratory-reared mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) were experimentally infected with Sphaeridiotrema globulus. Host cell-mediated immunity and wound healing in S. globulus infected ducks were evaluated by gross and histological examination. Establishment, location, and life span of S. globulus differed from previous reports of sphaeridiotremiasis in both naturally and experimentally infected waterfowl. No worms were recovered from the ceca, and worm migration occurred anterior to the ileo-cecal valve with greater dispersion (less worm crowding) at higher rates of infectivity. Parasite death and host lesion resolution were evident at days 8 to 10 postinfection (PI) in ducks fed a moderate dose (200 metacercariae, group A) with a 5% mean parasite recovery rate. Host death occurred at days 3 to 6 in ducks fed a high dose (550 metacercariae, group B) with a 16% mean parasite recovery rate. Mast cells increased significantly (P < 0.005) in group A ducks from days 4 to 10 PI. Eosinophil proliferation was greater in group B than in group A on day 4 PI, but comparatively fewer eosinophils were identifiable in group B ducks on day 6 PI.

Our objective was to compare two methods of oral dosing of p,p′-DDT (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethane) on uptake of DDT metabolites and isomers (i.e., p,p′-DDT, o,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDE, o,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDD, o,p′-DDD) in livers and brains. p,p′-DDT was administered to northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) by intubation with corn oil or as a feed additive for 56 days. When adjusted for amount of DDT consumed, total DDT (ΣDDT, the summation of all DDT metabolites and isomers) and p,p′-DDE concentrations differed significantly (P < 0.10) in both brains and livers, whereas p,p′-DDD differed only in brains and p,p′-DDT differed only in livers. Paired comparisons between brains and livers differed significantly for ΣDDT, (P < 0.05), p,p′-DDE (P < 0.05) and p,p′-DDT (P < 0.1) for both intubated and food-dosed treatment groups, whereas p,p′-DDD (P < 0.05) differed only in the intubated group. We concluded that method of oral exposure affected the uptake of DDT in livers and brains for northern bobwhites.

Eight domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) and two Siberian polecats (M. eversmanni) were inoculated subcutaneously with 12 to 1.2 × 10⁷ Yersinia pestis originally isolated during an epizootic of plague in white-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys leucurus) near Meeteetse, Park County, Wyoming (USA) in 1985. None of the ferrets or polecats developed clinical signs of disease which suggested that black-footed ferrets (M. nigripes), a congener, also would be resistant to plague. All animals receiving ≥ 1.2 × 10³ organisms produced serum antibodies detected by the passive hemagglutination test with titers peaking at 1:1,024 and remaining positive until at least 219 days postinoculation. Sera collected from 12 free-ranging black-footed ferrets near Meeteetse in 1984 and 1985 were negative for antibodies against Y. pestis. Prevalence of antibodies against Y. pestis was high in other carnivores collected from the same area in 1986.

Hides of nine elk, collected during the winter of 1986–1987 from the National Elk Refuge, Wyoming (USA) were examined for ectoparasites. Parasites recovered were mites, Psoroptes sp. (five elk); lice, Solenopotes ferrisi and Bovicola (Bovicola) longicornis (seven elk); and winter ticks, Dermacentor albipictus (nine elk). Three elk with severe scabies had an estimated 0.6 × 10⁶, 3.8 × 10⁶ and 6.5 × 10⁶ mites, respectively. Densities of mites were much higher in skin regions with severe dermatitis. Skin lesions on elk with scabies consisted of dense, often moist, scabs extending along the dorsal and lateral thoracic regions of the body. Lesions attributed to winter ticks consisted of broken hair and alopecia on the dorsal portion of the lower neck, often extending in a “collar” around the neck.

Records from the Maryland Public Health Department were screened for confirmed rodent and lagomorph rabies between 1981 and 1986. Questionnaires were designed for collection of information about events that led to the exposure of human and/or domestic animals to rabid rodent or lagomorphs. These species comprised 1.2% of all the reported rabies in the state. Woodchucks (Marmota monax) constituted 80.0% of all the reported rodent/lagomorph rabies cases in Maryland. The majority showed aggressive behavior (55.0%). Woodchucks exposed 15 persons (75.0% of all the exposures by rodents/lagomorphs). Domestic animal and human rabies exposure due to rodents and lagomorphs represents a small but significant number of the total exposure to rabid animals.

Icosahedral viral particles were found in the cytoplasm of erythrocytes and splenic reticular cells of a marine toad (Bufo marinus) collected from Costa Rica. Capsids had a maximum diameter of 312 nm and a spherical core with biphasic electron density. Viruses in erythrocytes were associated with cytoplasmic assembly areas and vacuoles in cytoplasm. Nuclei had finely granular material of decreased electron density located centrally, but contained no viral particles. A group of unenveloped viral particles was seen extracellularly in a splenic vessel. The virus was consistent with an iridovirus.

In a blood smear stained with Giemsa round basophilic bodies with average diameters of 1.70 μm and morphologically similar to Pirhemocyton sp. were seen in the cytoplasm of erythrocytes and occasionally in the cytoplasm of monocytes or extracellularly. Erythrocytes containing these bodies had vacuoles and irregular pale-staining areas in the cytoplasm and pale-staining areas in the nucleus. These changes corresponded to the viral particles, assembly areas, vacuoles and nuclear changes at the ultrastructural level.

Golden shiners (Notemigonus crysoleucas) experimentally infected with four reoviruses supported replication of golden shiner virus as well as chum salmon virus, reovirus 13p₂ and catfish reovirus at temperatures of 23 and 28 C. All four reoviruses replicated in golden shiners in this study. Natural infections of the golden shiner virus are known only in golden shiners.

Eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) (n = 1,023), obtained during winter, spring, and summer from 1983 to 1988 on Tallahala Wildlife Management Area (TWMA) (Jasper County, Mississippi, USA) were examined for avian pox lesions. Domestic turkey poults (n = 152) maintained on the area for 1 to 2 wk periods from 1987 to 1989 also were examined. Neither wild nor domestic birds showed gross evidence of pox virus infection. This study indicated that avian pox was not endemic in wild turkeys at TWMA.

A moose (Alces alces gigas) was inoculated with Brucella suis biovar 4 to better understand the effects of brucellosis in this species. Serum antibody titers increased rapidly and peaked within 21 to 56 days. Fever, leukocytosis, recumbency, anorexia and depression were observed starting 42 days post inoculation. Brucella suis biovar 4 was isolated from blood, lymph nodes, liver and spleen.

A serologic survey was conducted on an American bison (Bison bison) herd in Kansas for antibodies against Brucella spp., Leptospira interrogans serovar canicola, pomona, grippotyphosa, icterohaemorrhagiae, and hardjo, Anaplasma spp., bluetongue virus, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus and bovine viral diarrhea virus. There was an increase in prevalence of bluetongue antibodies from 38% in 1987 to 100% in 1989 in animals ≥24-mo-old. Prevalences of antibodies against the other livestock pathogens were either negative or at levels associated with previous vaccination.

A bacteriologic and serologic study was conducted on two ranches in the states of Apure and Guarico, Venezuela for brucellosis in collared peccaries (Tayassu tajacu). One hundred thirty-nine peccaries were necropsied and tissues were cultured. Forty-three isolations of Brucella suis biovar 1, were made from lymph nodes and spleens of 25 males and 18 females. Antibody to Brucella sp. was detected in sera from 122 animals by the rapid plate agglutination, standard tube agglutination, 2-mercaptoethanol, rivanol, complement fixation and card tests. Young animals had infection and reactor rates nearly as high as the older animals indicating most were infected at a relative early age. Results suggest that this species may transmit brucellosis when living with domestic animals. This is the first report of B. suis biovar 1 from collared peccaries in Venezuela.

Three hundred thirty-three blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) were examined for blood parasites from 11 sites: southern Yukon Territory, southeast coastal Alaska, northern and central interior British Columbia, south coastal British Columbia, northcentral Washington, southcentral Oregon, northwestern California, eastcentral Nevada, northwestern Colorado, and westcentral Montana. Three species of protozoan parasites (Leucocytozoon lovati, Haemoproteus mansoni, Trypanosoma avium) and a splendidofilariid nematode (Microfilaria sp. B) were found in nearly all locations. Prevalence levels were consistently high for L. lovati (92%). The other hematozoa were found less frequently (H. mansoni 29%; T. avium 46%; and microfilaria 29%). The range of these parasites in blue grouse was extended to a more northern (Yukon Territory) and more southern distribution (Nevada) than previously reported. Ranges were also extended to blue grouse populations in Alaska, Washington, Oregon and California.

Four hemoparasite species (Babesia lotori, Trypanosoma cruzi, Dirofilaria tenuis and Mansonella llewellyni) were found in raccoons (Procyon lotor) collected from 1972 to 1974 in Duval (n = 14) and Collier (n = 170) counties, Florida (USA). Trypanosoma cruzi was found in thin blood smears from one raccoon at each locality. The prevalence of B. lotori was 79% and 80% in samples taken in December 1973 in Collier and Duval counties, respectively. No patent infections by B. lotori were detected in raccoons collected in Collier County in December 1972, but 42% of the raccoons examined in September 1973 were infected. In Collier County there were no significant differences in the prevalence of B. lotori by host sex or age. In Duval County, overall D. tenuis prevalence was 7%, whereas that of M. llewellyni was 14%; the latter species was not found in Collier County. Adult raccoons had a significantly greater prevalence of D. tenuis (32%) than did subadults and juveniles (7%), and male raccoons showed a significantly greater prevalence (51%) than did females (8%).

Macrocysts of the protozoan parasite Sarcocystis spp. occurred in 34 of 241 (14%) adult and 6 of 70 (8.6%) immature mottled ducks (Anas fulvigula) that were collected in southwestern Louisiana from 1987 to 1989. The prevalence of Sarcocystis spp. among immature ducks was higher than previously reported, possibly because of a longer exposure period. No differences in carcass composition variables were found between heavily infected and uninfected adult mottled ducks during the winter period of the annual cycle. We concluded that macrocysts of Sarcocystis spp. did not influence carcass composition and probably exert negligible effects on survival of parasitized mottled ducks during winter.

Two hundred and one whiptail lizards, Cnemidophorus spp., from Texas and Colorado (USA), were examined for Mesocestoides sp. tetrathyridia. Eleven (5%) were infected, including three of 58 (5%) C. dixoni, six of 70 (9%) C. gularis septemvittatus, one of 35 (3%) C. marmoratus, and one of 34 (3%) C. tesselatus; four C. inornatus heptagrammus were not infected. In addition, 41 non-cnemidophorine lizards from the same study area were not infected. Free tetrathyridia were found in the body cavity of lizards and encapsulated tetrathyridia were observed in the heart, liver, stomach, mesenteries, ovaries, intestines, and lungs. None of the Mesocestoides sp. exhibited any evidence of asexual proliferation such as multiple scoleces or buds. This note, the fifth in a series of reports on helminths of Cnemidophorus spp., represents the first time Mesocestoides sp. has been reported from these four taxa, and Colorado is a new geographic locality record for this parasite.

Fecal examinations revealed that at least 10 of 21 (48%) captive red wolves (Canis rufus) and eight of 12 (67%) free-ranging red wolves were infected with intestinal parasites. No captive wolves and only one of seven reintroduced wolves had dirofilariasis. Ticks were collected from 10 of 21 (48%) captive wolves and nine of 12 (75%) free-ranging animals. Ivermectin administered at a dosage of 50 μg/Ag of estimated body weight every 30 to 60 days apparently prevented or ameliorated parasitism in red wolves.

We compared serum glucose concentration and percent glycosylated hemoglobin (GH) in captive and wild white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to determine stability of glucose relative to GH. Temporal changes in levels of serum glucose and GH were ascertained from serial blood samples collected from three captive deer over a 2-week period. State of glycemia also was determined for 17 wild deer that were collected from three populations in southeastern Oklahoma and southwestern Arkansas (USA). Concentration of serum glucose of captive deer decreased (P = 0.04) from 190.4 to 155.8 mg/dl over the 2 weeks; percent GH did not differ temporally (P = 0.30). Percent GH of wild deer did not differ (P = 0.23) when deer were separated into 2 groups (high and low state of glycemia) based on the median serum glucose concentration. We found a significant difference (P = 0.04) in percent GH among wild deer populations; serum glucose concentration did not differ (P = 0.72) among populations. Our results indicate that percent GH is more stable than serum glucose concentration and may be useful in population comparisons of nutritional condition.

Blood samples obtained from 73 captive Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) were analyzed for hematology and serum chemistry values. Compared with other data from this animal RBC, WBC, bilirubin and ASAT values are lower, but glucose, urea and uric acid values are higher.

During a 7 mo exhibit loan, diets of two juvenile female giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) were monitored. Mineral [calcium (Ca), copper (Cu), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), zinc (Zn)] and vitamin (beta-carotene and total tocopherol) concentrations in the diet were quantified as well as in a serum sample obtained from one of these animals. Diets consumed by the pandas contained (dry matter basis): 0.82% Ca, 0.62% P, 1.05% K, 14.3 mg/kg Cu, 31.8 mg/kg Zn, 12.2 mg/kg beta-carotene, and 12 mg/kg total tocopherol. Serum values for these vitamins and minerals were within reported normal limits for the spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus). This diet appeared to provide adequate nutrition for maintenance and growth.

Two wild Canada geese (Branta canadensis) in an extremely emaciated state and with severe proventricular food impaction also had a nonsuppurative encephalomyelitis and ganglioneuritis. The condition in these two birds was morphologically similar to psittacine proventricular dilatation, a recently identified disease of psittacine birds.

An oral squamous cell carcinoma which invaded maxillary bones with metastasis to the right retropharyngeal lymph node was diagnosed in a free-ranging California bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis californiana) from Washington. Much of the maxillae had been replaced with tumor and reactive tissue, and many teeth were missing or loose. The tumor was predominantly confined to the shape of the maxillary bones and was unusual because it was bilaterally symmetrical.

A leukemia characterized by the proliferation of undifferentiated hematopoietic stem cells is described from a desert spiny lizard (Sceloporus magister). This is the first neoplasm reported from this species and the first leukemia from the family Iguanidae. A massive invasion of primitive hematopoietic cells was noted in the vascular system and heart muscle. Spleen, bone marrow, lungs, adrenal gland, pancreas, brain, skin, testes, liver, lamina propria and submucosa of intestines were extensively involved. Tissue-fixed mast cells were noted in the kidney and intestinal submucosa but were not participating in the neoplastic proliferation.