An epizootic of duck plague occurred in early 1973 in a population of 163,500 wild waterfowl, primarily mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), wintering on Lake Andes and the nearby Missouri River in southeastern South Dakota (USA). The diagnosis was based on pathologic lesions and confirmed by virus isolation. Control measures included quarantine, attempts to reduce virus contamination of the area, dispersal of waterfowl, and monitoring of wild waterfowl populations for mortality. The epizootic resulted in documented mortality of 18% and estimated mortality of 26% of the waterfowl at risk. Prompt implementation of control measures might have limited mortality to approximately 8%. Losses during the epizootic were equivalent to 0.12% of the annual mortality in the North American 1996 fall population of 80,000,000 wild ducks. The most likely sources of the infection were free-flying wild mallard or American black duck (Anas rubripes) carriers from the upper midwestern or northeastern United States. Duck plague serum neutralization antibodies were demonstrated in 31% of 395 apparently healthy mallards sampled prior to dispersal of the flock at Lake Andes, suggesting that tens of thousands of potential duck plague carriers entered the wild waterfowl populations of all four major flyways. Consequently, the absence of major epizootics of duck plague in wild waterfowl in the subsequent two decades is evidence that substantial numbers of duck plague carriers can occur in wild waterfowl populations without resulting in epizootic mortalities. The failure to isolate duck plague virus from apparently healthy mallards sampled during the epizootic raises questions concerning the validity of conclusions regarding the status of duck plague in wild waterfowl based upon negative results of random surveys conducted in the absence of epizootics.

A plague (Yersinia pestis) epizootic spread through Gunnison's prairie dogs (Cynomys gunnisoni), and possibly other rodent species, in the Moreno Valley in north-central New Mexico between winter 1984–1985 and autumn 1987. We observed the progress of the epizootic and subsequent population recovery at four prairie dog towns within the valley during this period. At two towns (Midlake and Val Verde) the prairie dogs were marked prior to the epizootic. At two additional towns (Vega and South Entrance) prairie dogs were marked following the epizootic. In 1988, a second epizootic occurred at Vega. One hundred thirty-nine serum samples were collected from prairie dogs and other rodents and 1,750 fleas were collected from animals and burrows. Fleas infected with Y. pestis were collected from prairie dogs, deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), and thirteen-lined ground squirrels (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus). Prairie dog fleas included Oropsylla hirsuta, O. labis and O. tuberculata; deermouse associated fleas were Aetheca wagneri and Rhadinopsylla sectilis, and Oropsylla bacchi was associated with thirteen-lined ground squirrels. All of the above flea species were collected from prairie dog burrows. All rodent species shared some flea species. Thirteen-lined ground squirrels disappeared shortly before plague was identified in prairie dogs at Midlake. Meadow voles were rare following the epizootic at Vega in 1986, became abundant in 1987, and disappeared at the time of the second prairie dog epizootic in summer 1988. Although we collected serum from Gunnison's prairie dogs, thirteen-lined ground squirrels, deer mice, and meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus), we identified elevated serum titers against Y. pestis only in Gunnison's prairie dogs. Prairie dog mortality at all towns affected by plague was in excess of 99%. Serum antibody titers indicate that more than 40% of the few prairie dogs left to establish colonies following epizootics survived plague infection.

Fleas were collected from white-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys leucurus) and other small mammals trapped on six grids during a field study near Meeteetse (Wyoming, USA) in 1989 and 1990 to investigate the dynamics of plague in this rodent population. Fleas were identified and tested for Yersinia pestis by mouse inoculation. Yersinia pestis-positive fleas were found on prairie dogs and in their burrows. Flea species on prairie dogs changed from spring to late summer. White-tailed prairie dog numbers were significantly lower in the presence of Y. pestis-positive fleas; however, affected populations generally recovered 1 to 2 yr following absence of detectable plague. Grids where recovery occurred had a high proportion of juvenile male prairie dogs. Eighteen flea species were identified on small mammals, six of which were infected with Y. pestis. Some flea species were associated with a particular small mammal species, while others were found on a broad range of host species. Flea species most important in the potential interchange of Y. pestis between associated small mammals and white-tailed prairie dogs were Oropsylla tuberculata cynomuris, Oropsylla idahoensis, and Oropsylla labis. Plague cycled through the white-tailed prairie dog complex in an unpredictable manner. Each summer the complex was a mixture of colonies variously impacted by plague: some were declining, some were unaffected by plague, and others were recovering from plague population declines. These data provide insight into the dynamics of plague in white-tailed prairie dog complexes, but predicting movement of plague is not yet possible and the role of associated mammals in maintenance of plague is not understood.

Cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) usually are thought to succumb to infection with Francisella tularensis. Reports of a rabbit population from southern Illinois (USA) with a high prevalence of F. tularensis antibodies suggested that some cottontails survived infection with this typically fatal bacterium. Our goal was to examine the humoral response of cottontails from a study area in southern Illinois for which multiple serum samples existed. Multiple sera were collected from 79 cottontails from 1986 to 1990 and 63% gained, lost, or maintained ELISA titers of IgM and IgG isotype antibodies. The typical pattern of antibody response appeared to be IgM isotype antibodies first, followed by IgG isotype antibodies, with both generally increasing to high titers. Negative culture attempts of liver tissue from 51 cottontails with varying antibody responses suggested that chronic infection did not occur in rabbits that developed antibody. The significance of the cottontail antibody response in resolution or prevention of tularemia infection remains unclear.

We examined effects of a multivalent Pasteurella haemolytica vaccine (serotypes Al, A2, T10) on humoral immune responses and P. haemolytica isolation rates in bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis). Thirty captive bighorns, divided into groups of three on the basis of age, sex, and previous history of pneumonic pasteurellosis, received 0, 1, or 2 vaccine doses. Mild, transient lameness in most bighorns 1 day after initial vaccination was the only adverse effect observed. Oropharyngeal (≥75%) and nasal (≤50%) isolation rates for P. haemolytica did not differ among treatment groups. Ten of 36 distinguishable biogroup variants accounted for about 87% of the 464 P. haemolytica isolates from bighorns, but prevalences of specific biogroups were not affected by vaccination. Bighorns receiving 1 or 2 vaccine doses showed marked elevations in leukotoxin neutralizing antibody titers beginning 1 wk after vaccination. Agglutinating antibody titers to serotype Al and A2 surface antigens were also elevated in vaccinated bighorns within 2 wk after vaccination; agglutinating antibody titers to serotype T10 surface antigens were relatively high in all three groups but appeared unaffected by vaccination. Vaccination 7 to 14 wk prior to parturition elevated leukotoxin neutralizing antibody titers in colostrum, but neither leukotoxin neutralizing nor serotype Al surface antigen agglutinating antibody titers differed through 16 wk of age among lambs born to dams from different vaccine dose groups. Our data demonstrate that this multivalent P. haemolytica vaccine is safe and stimulates marked antibody responses in bighorn sheep. Further evaluation of this vaccine as a tool in preventing and managing pasteurellosis in bighorn sheep appears warranted.

A 4.5 yr-old male white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) killed by a hunter during the 1994 firearm hunting season in northeastern Michigan (USA) had lesions suggestive of tuberculosis and was positive on culture for Mycobacterium bovis the causative agent for bovine tuberculosis. Subsequently, a survey of 354 hunter-harvested white-tailed deer for tuberculosis was conducted in this area from 15 November 1995 through 5 January 1996. Heads and/or lungs from deer were examined grossly and microscopically for lesions suggestive of bovine tuberculosis. Gross lesions suggestive of tuberculosis were seen in 15 deer. Tissues from 16 deer had acid-fast bacilli on histological examination and in 12 cases mycobacterial isolates from lymph nodes and/or lungs were identified as M. bovis. In addition, lymph nodes from 12 deer (11 females and 1 male) without gross or microscopic lesions were pooled into 1 sample from which M. bovis was cultured. Although more male (9) than female (3) deer had bovine tuberculosis infections, this difference was not statistically significant. Mycobacterium bovis culture positive deer ranged in age from 1.5 to 5.5 yr with a mean of 2.7 yr (median 2.5 yr) for males and 3.2 yr (median 3.5 yr) for females. This appears to be the first epidemic occurrence of M. bovis in free-ranging cervids in North America. A combination of environmental (high deer density and poor quality habit) and management-related factors (extensive supplemental feeding) may be responsible for this epizootic.

A population of desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) at Yucca Mountain (Nevada, USA) was monitored during four sampling periods using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) to determine the percentage of individuals that had been exposed to Mycoplasma agassizii, a causative agent of upper respiratory tract disease. Respiratory tract disease has been considered a significant factor in the decline of desert tortoise populations in the Mojave Desert (USA). Few differences between sexes in ELISA values or percentages testing positive were noted. From 15 to 23% of samples per period tested positive for exposure to the mycoplasma. However, we noted few clinical signs of upper respiratory tract disease. This is in contrast to an earlier study which reported a similar proportion of seropositive tortoises as well as a high percentage of tortoises with clinical signs. However, our results are consistent with that study's conclusion that seropositivity for M. agassizii was a poor predictor of the likelihood to exhibit clinical signs of upper respiratory tract disease. Earlier reported epizootics of mycoplasma-associated respiratory disease occurred mainly during times of drought. Our samples were collected during a period of average to above-average rainfall, suggesting that manifestation of clinical signs of the disease may depend upon the physiological condition of tortoises which, in turn, is related to environmental conditions.

The duration of Borrelia burgdorferi infectivity in white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) experimentally inoculated or infested with infected Ixodes scapularis nymphs was evaluated. Infectivity was assessed by infesting these mice with unfed I. scapularis larvae at 7, 21, 35 and 49 days post-inoculation (DPI) or post-infestation (PI). At 7 DPI, B. burgdorferi was transmitted from 18 of 24 syringe-inoculated mice and all three tick-infected mice to I. scapularis larvae which fed upon them. However, at 21, 35 and 49 DPI, significantly fewer mice were infective. Borrelia burgdorferi was isolated from tissues of 14 of 22 syringe-inoculated mice about 56 DPI, and from all three tick-infected mice. However, the level of agreement between xeno-diagnosis and bacterial culture was no greater than would be expected by chance alone. We also determined if B. burgdorferi infectivity of mice varied in relation to periods of tick feeding in the field. White-footed mice were trapped during April, July and August 1993 from two habitats on Long Point peninsula (Ontario, Canada), where B. burgdorferi is endemic. Mice from each habitat were infested with laboratory-reared I. scapularis larvae. Ticks from each mouse were subsequently examined by immunofluorescent assay for B. burgdorferi infection and mice were cultured for B. burgdorferi. None of 3577 I. scapularis larvae fed on 62 mice captured within the cottonwood dune habitat were infected with B. burgdorferi, although it was isolated from six of these mice. Within the maple forest habitat, 0/24, 8/21 (38%) and 1/21 (5%) mice transmitted B. burgdorferi to I. scapularis larvae during April, July and August, respectively. Most mice from the maple forest with B. burgdorferi-positive tissues (14/21) were collected during July, although the level of agreement between xenodiagnosis and tissue culture was poor. Because B. burgdorferi infectivity in mice appears to be of short duration, overwintered I. scapularis larvae and nymphs may have to feed upon infected hosts at the same time of year in order for a cycle of B. burgdorferi infection to be maintained on Long Point. Infected I. scapularis nymphs, rather than persistently infected vertebrate hosts, likely serve as the overwintering “reservoir” for B. burgdorferi on Long Point.

Vitreous humor and liver samples were collected from hunter-harvested elk (Cervus elaphus) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in Idaho (USA). Concentrations of calcium, chloride, potassium, sodium, urea nitrogen and selenium were determined and evaluated according to species, age, gender, geographic location, and time elapsed following death. Vitreous humor analysis yielded reliable biochemical information for ≤96 hr subsequent to the death of the animal. Vitreous potassium concentration changes over time could be used to estimate the time that elapsed following death.

Ninety-four blood samples were collected from 48 (29 males and 19 females) free-ranging Florida panthers (Felis concolor coryi) captured in southern Florida (USA) from 1983 to 1994 for routine hematological and serum biochemical analysis. Florida panthers in the northern portion of their range had significantly higher red blood cell (mean ± SD = 7.923 × 10⁶ ± 0.854 × 10⁶/μl), hemoglobin (12.53 ± 1.66 g/dl), and packed cell volume (36.97 ± 4.27%) values compared to those of panthers localized in more southern parts of Florida (7.148 × 10⁶ ± 1.045 × 10⁶/μl, 11.60 ± 1.62 g/dl, and 34.82 ± 5.99%, respectively). Adults had significantly higher mean serum total protein (7.50 ± 0.59 g/dl) and packed cell volume (36.90 ± 4.97%) values than juveniles (6.88 ± 0.49 g/dl and 34.54 ± 5.30%). However, mean serum albumin concentrations were significantly higher in juveniles (3.80 ± 0.26 g/dl) when compared to adult values (3.58 ± 0.26 g/dl). Mean serum calcium concentrations were significantly higher in juveniles (10.33 ± 0.39 mg/dl) than in adults (9.66 ± 0.45 mg/dl). Additionally, mean serum iron concentrations were significantly higher in those panthers of intergrade genetic stock compared to values in those of authentic genetic stock (105.6 ± 72.1 μg/dl versus 59.3 ± 19.7 μg/dl, respectively).

Sixty seven serum samples collected from 43 European brown bears (Ursus arctos) from Croatia were tested for ≤31 serum chemistry parameters. Results were grouped and compared by bears origin (method of capture), sex, age, mass, and season sampled. Greatest differences were found between captive and free-living bears, and minor differences were found when sex, age, mass, or season of sampling were compared. Creatine kinase was significantly different among three categories of bears with the highest mean value of 924 IU/l in snare captured free-living bears compared to 67.8 IU/l in captive ones. Results of these tests provide reference values for European brown bears.

Collared anteaters (Tamandua tetradactyla) were immobilized for clinical procedures as part of a wildlife rescue during the filling of a hydroelectric dam (Petit Saut, French Guiana) from March 1994 to March 1995. Two doses of ketamine hydrochloride (KH) (group I x̄ ± SD = 11.2 ± 1.4 mg/kg, group II = 19.7 ± 1.3 mg/kg) in combination with xylazine hydrochloride (XH) (1.0 ± 0.1 mg/kg) were evaluated in seven and 10 collared anteaters, respectively. Induction time did not differ between the two groups. Immobilization time was significantly longer in group II than in group I (48.3 ± 15.8 min and 35.0 ± 9.5 min, respectively), without lengthening the recovery process. Adverse effects were not observed. The degree of anesthesia and the muscle relaxation were better in group II than in group I. Rectal temperature decreased in both groups and was significantly higher in group II than in group I. Heart rate was significantly higher in group II than in group I at 5 min post-injection and decreased in group II. No effects on respiratory rate were observed. We recommend the 20 mg/kg KH – 1 mg/kg XH combination, especially for manipulations longer than 30 to 40 min and for minor surgery procedures.

An apparently novel adenovirus was associated with an epizootic of hemorrhagic disease that is believed to have killed thousands of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in California (USA) during 1993—1994. A systemic vasculitis with pulmonary edema and hemorrhagic enteropathy or a localized vasculitis associated with necrotizing stomatitis/pharyngitis/glossitis or osteomyelitis of the jaw were common necropsy findings in animals that died during this epizootic. Six black-tailed yearling deer (O. hemionus columbianus) were inoculated with purified adenovirus isolated from a black-tailed fawn that died of acute adenovirus hemorrhagic disease during the epizootic. Three of six inoculated deer also received intramuscular injections of dexamethasone sodium phosphate every 3 days during the study. Eight days post-inoculation, one deer (without dexamethasone) developed bloody diarrhea and died. Necropsy and histopathologic findings were identical to lesions in free-ranging animals that died of the natural disease. Hemorrhagic enteropathy and pulmonary edema were the significant necropsy findings and there was microscopic vascular damage and endothelial intranuclear inclusion bodies in the vessels of the intestines and lungs. Adenovirus was identified in necrotic endothelial cells in the lungs by fluorescent antibody staining, immunohistochemistry and by transmission electron microscopy. Adenovirus was reisolated from tissues of the animal that died of experimental adenovirus hemorrhagic disease. Similar gross and microscopic lesions were absent in four of six adenovirus-inoculated deer and in the negative control animal which were necropsied at variable intervals during the 14 wk study. One deer was inoculated with purified adenovirus a second time, 12 wk after the first inoculation. Fifteen days after the second inoculation, this deer developed severe ulceration of the tongue, pharynx and rumen and necrotizing osteomyelitis of the mandible which was associated with vasculitis and thrombosis of adjacent large vessels and endothelial intranuclear inclusions. Transmission electron microscopy demonstrated adenovirus within the nuclei of vascular cells and immunohistochemistry demonstrated adenovirus antigen within tonsilar epithelium and in rare vessels.

Twenty-one blood samples of free-ranging mountain zebras (Equus zebra) from Namibia were tested for equine herpesvirus (EHV-1, -2, -3, -4) specific antibodies by immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and neutralization test (NT). Additionally, type-specific nested polymerase chain reactions (nested PCR) were employed for detection of EHV-1, -2 and -4 DNA. Equine herpesvirus-1 antibodies were detected by IFA in all zebras, while only seven serum samples contained EHV-4 IFA antibodies. Sera with high IFA antibodies also were found to neutralize EHV-1 and -4. Furthermore, 20 zebras were EHV-2 seropositive by IFA, and one zebra had EHV-2 neutralizing antibodies. Equine herpesvirus-3 specific antibodies were not detected. We did not amplify EHV-1, -2 or -4 specific DNA sequences in peripheral blood leukocytes of the same zebras using type-specific nested PCR. EHV infections appear to be widespread in free-ranging zebras, as they are in domestic horses.

In order to determine if hantaviruses were present in mice and other small mammals in Indiana (USA), small mammals were trapped in Brown, LaPorte, Tippecanoe and Whitley counties. Sixty-seven small mammals were trapped during August and September 1994. Sixty-three Peromyscus leucopus, one Microtus pennsylvanicus, one Zapus hudsonius and two Blarina brevicauda were captured and tested for hantaviruses. Six P. leucopus were found to have antibody to Sin Nombre virus (SN) by IgG ELISA, and a 139 bp fragment of SN-like hantavirus was amplified from five of them. All six of the positive P. leucopus were from LaPorte County. No other small mammals had evidence of infection with SN virus. This study presents the first report of Sin Nombre-like hantavirus in P. leucopus from Indiana.

African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) are endangered, with only 3,000–5,000 remaining in the wild. It is believed that wild dogs are unusually vulnerable to viral diseases, particularly rabies and canine distemper (CDV). However, canine distemper has been confirmed by laboratory diagnosis in only one free-living wild dog. The 43,000 km² Selous Game Reserve (SGR; Tanzania) holds approximately 900 adult wild dogs. In a study area of 2,600 km², the population maintained high density (≥1 dog/20.5 km²) from 1991 to 1996. The population was stable, varying 18% below and 9% above the mean density over the 6-yr period. Serum samples (n = 22) collected over 3 yr showed that most individuals were exposed to CDV (59%: 95% confidence interval = 43–76% seropositive) and canine parvovirus (68%: 95% CI = 54–81% seropositive), although none were seropositive for rabies (0%: 95% CI = 0–17%). CDV titers were positively related to age, with no seropositive dogs younger than 1.9 yr. At least five of 13 dogs positive for CDV seroconverted during the study Dogs with high CDV titers did not survive better in the years after sampling (mean survival ± SE for those that died = 638 ± 92 days,). Variation in mean litter size was inversely related to CPV exposure in the SGR and elsewhere. Annual mortality rates were low in comparison to other populations for all age classes (pups: 31 ± 8%, n = 127, yearlings: 22 ± 10%, n = 93, adults: 20 ± 6%, n = 235). Annual mortality rates fluctuated little between 1992 and 1996. These data show that wild dog populations, like those of other canids, can remain stable and demographically healthy despite exposure to CDV and CPV.

Diagnostic findings are presented for 434 common loons (Gavia immer) found sick or dead on Florida beaches from 1970 through 1994, primarily during the months of December to April. The most commonly recognized problem was an emaciation syndrome (66%), followed by oiling (18%), aspergillosis (7%), trauma (5%) and miscellaneous disease entities (1%). The cause-of-death for 3% of the birds was not determined. Many of the carcasses examined (n = 173) were obtained during an epizootic which occurred from January to March of 1983 in which more than 13,000 loons were estimated to have died. An emaciation syndrome, characterized by severe atrophy of pectoral muscles, loss of body fat and hemorrhagic enteritis, was the primary finding in this epizootic. It was postulated to have a complex etiologic basis involving synergistic effects and energy costs of migration, molting and replacement of flight feathers, food resource changes, salt-loading, intestinal parasitism, environmental contaminants, and inclement weather.

Northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus) (n = 25) and California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) (n = 53) pups, found dead on rookeries on San Miguel Island (California, USA), were examined for adult Uncinaria spp. Prevalence of these nematodes was 96% in fur seal pups and 100% in sea lion pups. Mean intensity of Uncinaria spp. per infected pup was 643 in fur seals and 1,284 in sea lions. Eggs of Uncinaria spp. from dead sea lion pups underwent embryonation in an incubator; development to the free-living third stage larva occurred within the egg. This study provided some specific information on hookworm infections in northern fur seal and California sea lion pups on San Miguel Island. High prevalence rate of Uncinaria spp. in both species of pinnipeds was documented and much higher numbers (2X) of hookworms were present in sea lion than fur seal pups.

Samples of heart, tongue, oesophagus and diaphragm muscle from twenty-two naturally infected roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) harvested in central Italy were examined for sarcosporidiasis. The structure of Sarcocystis spp. muscle cysts was examined by light and electron microscopy. Only one type of thin-walled cyst was distinguished by light microscopy. Electron microscopy showed cysts having a thin highly folded primary cyst wall, without fibrillar material, that formed thin hair-like protrusions often having a T-form, especially close to host cell mithocondria. The cysts appeared to belong to a single Sarcocystis sp. so that all the animals had monospecific infections. This cyst was compared with cysts described in other cervid in an attempt to determine if single or multiple species of the genus Sarcocystis occur in the Cervidae. Apparently, a single Sarcocystis sp. with a low specificity for the intermediate host can infect the Cervidae.

One to six Sarcocystis spp. were identified in the skeletal muscles of 41 (33%) of 124 wild rodents (Rattus spp. and Bandicota indica) mainly captured in the central plains of Thailand throughout the year in 1995. Included were S. singaporensis, S. villivillosi, and S. murinotechis-like cysts all of which showed a striated cyst wall at the light microscopical level, and Sarcocystis cymruensis, S. sulawesiensis, and S. zamani which possessed smooth cyst walls. The ultrastructure of the cyst wall and other morphological characteristics used to distinguish species are described. By inoculation of muscle cysts from wild-caught rodents into coccidia-free pythons (Python reticulatus, P. molurus bivittatus), we confirmed that P. reticulatus is a suitable definitive host for S. singaporensis and S. zamani in Thailand. Furthermore, we showed by fecal examination of reticulated pythons collected in the wild and subsequent experimental infection of laboratory rats that these hosts also are naturally infected with both species. Sarcocystis cymruensis is reported for the first time from Southeast Asia. This parasite was prevalent in brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) and bandicoot rats (B. indica) which were captured near human habitations; it is likely to be transmitted to rats via cats. The definitive hosts of S. sulawesiensis and S. murinotechis are unknown. Hence, at least three Sarcocystis spp. (S. singaporensis, S. zamani, S. villivillosi) are likely to cycle between snakes and rodents in agricultural areas in Thailand. Among these, S. singaporensis appears to be the most prevalent species.

First-stage larvae of Protostrongylus spp. were more numerous in the core of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadiensis canadiensis) pellets than near the surface. As a result, only 22% could be extracted from whole pellets and the numbers collected did not reflect the total number of larvae present in samples. Crushing semi-dried pellets yielded seven times as many larvae and numbers collected were correlated with totals present. The use of tissue, in addition to a screen filter in a beaker extraction method, produced a cleaner sample and did not affect larval collection or the correlation. By comparison, most first-stage larvae of Parelaphostrongylus tenuis from white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were near the surface of fecal pellets where they may be removed readily by water.

A striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) from Kansas (USA) with severe diffuse dermatitis characterized by extensive alopecic areas, thickened skin, and multiple, scattered cutaneous abscesses on the dorsal aspect of the head, neck, and trunk was submitted for diagnostic evaluation. More than 50 nematodes identified as Filaria taxicleae were found in the dorsal subcutaneous tissue. Histologic examination of the skin revealed multifocal pyogranulomatous inflammation with intralesional larvated nematode eggs, moderate orthokeratotic hyperkeratosis, and mild acanthosis. The lesions resemble those reported from badgers (Taxidea taxus) and a lesser panda (Ailurus fulgens) with dermatitis caused by Filaria taxideae. Although F. taxideae has been previously collected from skunks, this is the first report of filarid dermatitis caused by this nematode in a striped skunk.

Gnathostorna doloresi parasitizes the gastric wall of wild (boars) and domestic (pigs) swine (Sus scrofa). Its larvae cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans. Amphibians, reptiles and a freshwater fish are infected with the advanced 3rd stage larvae. Prevalence of G. doloresi larvae were surveyed in several snakes, especially in a common frog-eating snake (Rhabdophis tigrinus). All species of snakes examined were infected with G. doloresi larvae suggesting that snakes are important reservoir hosts. Prevalence of G. doloresi larvae in frog-eating snakes was lower than that found in mammal-eating snakes. Thus, as a source of infection to snakes, small mammals may be more important than frogs in the natural life cycle of G. doloresi in Japan.

Cross-sections of nematodes were seen in histologic sections of trachea from a raccoon (Procyon lotor) collected in Virginia (USA); they occupied epithelium and contained unembryonated, bioperculated eggs characteristic of the genus Capillaria (= Eucoleus). A mild inflammatory cell infiltrate in the lamina propria subjacent to the nematode was the only apparent host response. This is the first report of capillariasis in the trachea of raccoons.

The distribution of Fascioloides magna in game-ranched elk and the potential for spread of the parasite through movement of infected animals was examined in Montana (USA). Fecal samples (n = 448) collected from captive elk on 29 game ranches were examined for eggs of F. magna by fecal sedimentation. Eggs were detected in elk on 5 ranches. This suggests that F. magna has been translocated by infected game-ranched elk. The wide distribution of snail intermediate hosts for F. magna in Montana indicates a potential to spread the parasite to other captive cervids, domestic livestock or free-ranging wildlife.

Gills of steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) held in liveboxes to detect the presence of pathogens in the Willamette River (Oregon, USA) became heavily infected with trematode metacercariae. The metacercariae encysted adjacent to the cartilaginous rods of gill filaments and elicited a host response of cartilage proliferation from the perichondrium. Although some hyperplasia of gill epithelium and fusion of lamellae was apparent, the extent of damage to the respiratory surface was apparently insufficient to cause trout mortality. Morphological characteristics of the metacercariae did not allow precise identification, but they suggested affinities to either the Heterophyidae or Cryptogonimidae. Some heterophyids are known to cause proliferation of cartilage in fish gills, while cryptogonimids are not. This is the first report of trematode induced gill cartilage proliferation in steelhead trout.

Cysticerci of the cestodes Monorygma grimaldii and Phyllobothrium delphini were encountered during necropsy of an adult common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) found dead on the southeastern coast of Australia. Monorygma grimaldii cysticerci were found within highly organized retroperitoneal cysts, whereas P. delphini cysticerci in the subcutaneous blubber did not occupy specialized structures. There was a localized lymphoplasmacytic host response to the presence of cysticerci of both species, but M. grimaldii provoked a more severe suppurative response than P. delphini. The systematica and life history of both parasites are incompletely known, but sharks postulated as the potential definitive hosts are found in the region. A unique cysticercus of M. grimaldii was found lying free in the peritoneal cavity of this dolphin. Two rare records of M. grimaldii cysticerci in pinnipeds from the literature include one case of aberrant migration to the testis.

Senim samples from 107 cervids were examined for Toxoplasma gondii antibodies using indirect hemagglutination (IHA), indirect immunofluorescence (IFA), enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Dot-ELISA. Samples were obtained from 66 marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus) in the State of Sao Paulo (Brazil) and from 41 pampas deer (Ozotocerus bezoarticus) in the State of Goiás (Brazil). Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 23 (22%) of the deer, with 18 and 5 positive samples, respectively, for B. dichotomus and O. bezoarticus. The highest prevalence of T. gondii antibodies were young adults (32%), following by adults (27%) and fawns (13%). Only one serum sample (8%) from a newborn fawn was positive in the serological tests. The convenience of the Dot-ELISA test is obvious when compared with other serological tests for both laboratory or field surveys, mainly due to its features of practicability and reagent stability.

A free-ranging male red wolf (Canis rufus) in North Carolina (USA), exhibiting paresis, anorexia and heavy tick infection was diagnosed with tick paralysis. The wolf recovered completely following the removal of all ticks. This is the first record of tick paralysis in the red wolf.

Mucor amphibiorum is reported for the first time from a free-ranging native amphibian, a green tree frog (Litoria caerulea) from Queensland, Australia. The nasal cavity was largely replaced by granulomatous inflammatory tissue, and most internal organs had nodular granulomas. Typical mother and daughter sphaerules of M. amphibiorum occurred in these nodules which were due to granulomatous inflammation as well as areas of more active mixed inflammation with necrosis. Tissue homogenate from the spleen was inoculated into two cane toads (Bufo marinus), and one toad became infected with M. amphibiorum.

A 4.5-wk-old lynx (Felis lynx) was presented for necropsy with a history of poor growth, mild diarrhea, anemia, and lethargy. The liver was enlarged and had a 7 mm long fracture that resulted in severe intraabdominal hemorrhage and death. Microscopic lesions were indicative of severe ulcerative cystitis and septicemia. Pure cultures of Salmonella arizonae were isolated from the liver, kidney, and spleen. Based on differences in the chronicity of inflammation in the urinary bladder versus other organs, we speculate that chronic cystitis caused by S. arizonae lead to septicemic infection.

Approximately 75 individuals from a population of 111 Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis) died or disappeared from the Bale Mountains National Park (Ethiopia) between 1988 and 1992 during two significant population declines. Confirmation of rabies virus in two carcasses was based on the fluorescent antibody test (FAT) and the mouse inoculation test (MIT). In an Ethiopian wolf brain previously designated rabies negative by both FAT and MIT, rabies virus was identified by nested reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and confirmed by Southern blot hybridization. These methods were successfully used on a highly decomposed brain sample which had been stored in 20% dimethyl sulfoxide. This test system allows early and sensitive detection to be undertaken to more effectively prevent spread of disease and thus protect surviving animals.

Pseudorabies (Aujeszky's disease) was diagnosed in three adult captive coyotes (Canis latrans) from southern Indiana (USA). The coyotes died in their outdoor enclosure within a 48 hr period. Histopathology revealed mutlifocal, nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis and eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies within neurons. Samples of brain were positive for pseudorabies virus by fluorescent antibody testing and virus isolation. Source of infection was the probable consumption of pseudorabies virus-infected pig carcasses.

Antibodies were detected against bovine herpesviruses 1 (BHV 1) and 2 (BHV 2) in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) using the passive hemagglutination (PHA) test. The study was conducted during May to December 1994 using sera collected from zoological gardens and national parks in India. Four (4%) of 109 elephant sera had PHA titers ranging from 1:8 to 1:32 against BHV 1. Twenty-five (23%) of the 109 elephant sera had PHA titers ranging from 1:8 to 1:64 against BHV 2. Asian elephants appear to be better reservoirs for herpesviruses which are serologically related to BHV 2.

A stingray spine was found lodged in the scapula of a deceased 272 cm, male bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) from South Carolina (USA) following skeletal preparation, nearly 6 mo after necropsy. No external puncture wound, internal bruising, or laceration of muscle tissue surrounding the scapula was evident during necropsy of the animal. Implantation of the spine did not appear to be related to the death of the dolphin, but probably occurred at an early age. Abnormal development of bone surrounding the spine resulted in the formation of a cavity at the wound site. Two mechanisms were considered as contributors for the cavity formation. These were the mechanical action of the spine stimulating the body's defense system for managing foreign objects, and the release of potent toxins from the spine sheath.

Epithelial tumors of the skin occurred in landlocked populations of rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax) in several lakes in New Hampshire (USA) during the spawning runs. Histologically, these were noninvasive epithelial cell lesions. Herpesvirus-like particles could be seen in the nucleus and cytoplasm. The lesions occurred in both males and females. Prevalence, which varied annually, was as high as 30%.