The unique clinical and pathological findings in nine Asian (Elephas maximus) and two African (Loxodonta africana) elephants from North American Zoos with a highly fatal disease caused by novel endotheliotropic herpesviruses are described. Identification of the viruses by molecular techniques and some epidemiological aspects of the disease were previously reported. Consensus primer polymerase chain reaction (PCR) combined with sequencing yielded molecular evidence that confirmed the presence of two novel but related herpesviruses associated with the disease, one in Asian elephants and the second in African elephants. Disease onset was acute, with lethargy, edema of the head and thoracic limbs, oral ulceration and cyanosis of the tongue followed by death of most animals in 1 to 7 days. Pertinent laboratory findings in two of three clinically evaluated animals included lymphocytopenia and thrombocytopenia. Two affected young Asian elephants recovered after a 3 to 4 wk course of therapy with the anti-herpesvirus drug famciclovir. Necropsy findings in the fatal cases included pericardial effusion and extensive petechial hemorrhages in the heart and throughout the peritoneal cavity, hepatomegaly, cyanosis of the tongue, intestinal hemorrhage, and ulceration. Histologically, there were extensive microhemorrhages and edema throughout the myocardium and mild, subacute myocarditis. Similar hemorrhagic lesions with inflammation were evident in the tongue, liver, and large intestine. Lesions in these target organs were accompanied by amphophilic to basophilic intranuclear viral inclusion bodies in capillary endothelial cells. Transmission electron microscopy of the endothelial inclusion bodies revealed 80 to 92 nm diameter viral capsids consistent with herpesvirus morphology. The short course of the herpesvirus infections, with sudden deaths in all but the two surviving elephants, was ascribed to acute cardiac failure attributed to herpesvirus-induced capillary injury with extensive myocardial hemorrhage and edema.

In response to the 1984 St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) epidemic in the Los Angeles Basin of southern California (USA), an investigative program was initiated to evaluate the interactive components of the SLE virus transmission cycle. From 1987 through 1996 (10 yr), 52,589 birds were bled and their sera tested for SLE and western equine encephalomyelitis (WEE) virus antibodies by the hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) test. Eighty-three percent of the birds tested were house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) (48.7%) and house sparrows (Passer domesticus) (34.6%); 1.1% of these birds were positive for SLE antibodies. Prevalence of WEE antibodies was negligible. The analysis of 5,481 sera from rock doves (Columbia livia) yielded 3.6% SLE positives and 0.4% WEE positives. Collection sites were maintained as study sites when identified as positive bird, mosquito, and SLE virus activity localities; others were abandoned. Serial serum samples from 7,749 banded house sparrows and 9,428 banded house finches from these selected sites demonstrated year-round SLE virus transmission. One location exhibited significant numbers of house finches undergoing annual SLE seroconversion and a number of seroconversion-reversion-reconversion sequences suggesting either viral reinfection from mosquitoes or recrudescence by latent virus. A proportion of both bird species also lived for longer than 1 yr, thus, increasing the possibility of virus carry-over from autumn to spring. Assessment of concurrently collected mosquitoes indicated no correlative association between mosquito populations and SLE seroconversion and reconversion. European house sparrows introduced in the 1800's may have provided a supplemental link to the existing SLE virus enzootic cycle involving endemic house finches. Meteorological factors are reviewed as possible important correlates of SLE epidemics. The house finch/house sparrow serosurveillance system is also evaluated for use as an “Early Warning” indicator of SLE virus activity.

Chlamydial infections were determined serologically among wild ruminants in the Nature Park of the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas (CNP; Spain). Sampling was done during the period from 1990–95. There were 1,244 blood samples collected, consisting of 490 from fallow deer (Dama dama), 343 from mouflon (Ovis mussimon), 283 from red deer (Cervus elaphus) and 128 from Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica). Specific complement-fixing antibodies of Chlamydia spp. were detected by means of microtechnique, using lipopolysaccharide antigen. The relationship of biological (species, sex, age), temporal (year) and territorial (central and peripheral areas) factors to seropositive prevalence was examined, and preliminary data were collected on whether or not sheep and goat herds grazing in the peripheral areas of the park also were infected with Chlamydia spp. Chlamydiosis was common in the four species of wild ruminants in the CNP in all the years studied. The prevalence of Chlamydia sp. in mouflon (37%) was significantly greater than in fallow deer (30%), and both had a significantly higher prevalence rate than Spanish ibex and red deer (both 24%). The four species of wild ruminants were similar in that they act as reservoirs of Chlamydia spp., although their receptivity may be different, and the infection can certainly be maintained among these animals by intra-group transmission. The differences in prevalences and geometric mean titers (GMT), both between the sexes (male versus female) and between different ages (adult versus juvenile), were insignificant in all four species. For all species of wild ruminants both prevalence rates and GMTs were greater in populations occupying the peripheral areas of the park than in those inhabiting the central area. Herds of sheep and goats had a high prevalence of chlamydiosis. Intertransmission of Chlamydia sp. between wild and domestic ruminants occurred through grazing on the same pastures. The highest mean prevalence (44%) of patent infections (CFT titers of ≥1:80) was detected in red deer, although this frequency was not significantly different from those observed in mouflon (39%), Spanish ibex (38%), and fallow deer (37%). The proportion of patent infection was higher in females than in males, and none of the juveniles (<2-yr-old) showed patent infections. The prevalence of predicted patent chlamydial infections was always higher in the peripheral areas of the park, although only among mouflon and fallow deer were the differences statistically significant.

Borrelia burgdorferi isolates obtained from numerous locations and from different hosts in North Carolina, were compared to previously characterized strains of the Lyme disease spirochete and other Borrelia spp. The spirochete isolates were confirmed to be B. burgdorferi sensu stricto based on immunofluorescence (IFA) using a monoclonal antibody to outer surface protein A (Osp A [H5332]) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using a species-specific nested primer for a conserved region of the gene that encodes for flagellin. In addition, the isolates tested positive in Western blots with species-specific monoclonal antibodies for outer surface protein A and OspB (84c), and the genus-specific, monoclonal antibody to flagellin (H9724). Infectivity studies with several of these isolates were conducted using Mus musculus and Oryzomys palustris and the isolates exhibited markedly different levels of infectivity. This study demonstrates that B. burgdorferi sensu stricto is present and naturally transmitted on the Outer Banks and in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont regions of North Carolina.

From November of 1994 to June of 1996 an epizootic of mange, probably caused by the mite Notoedres cati, occurred in white-nosed coatis (Nasua narica) in the tropical dry forests of the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve in western Mexico. A monitoring scheme to determine the extent and severity of the epizootic within coatis was implemented. Trapping periods and transects were conducted for 2 yr. To control the spread of the disease, all captured infected coatis were either euthanized or treated with acaricides such as Butox® and Ivomec-F®, depending on the severity of their infection. Four other species of wild mammals and feral cats had skin conditions resembling mange. A more severe problem with the disease was predicted and later confirmed in the less isolated areas of the reserve, with a higher density of coatis. Our results indicate that epizootics may be more prone to occur in areas with greater fragmentation and less isolation from anthropogenic influence. Interestingly, although there was an apparently severe impact of the mange epizootic in the coati population, the long-term impact of the disease is unknown but appears to be negligible. So in order to understand the role of diseases in wildlife populations, long-term experimental studies are required.

During 1980–97, trichomoniasis was detected in nestlings of Bonelli's eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus in Catalonia (Spain). In 1993 Trichomonas gallinae was isolated in 36% of nestlings (n = 39) and affected 41% of broods (n = 22). Overall, trichomoniasis was one of the most important single nestling mortality factor, accounting for 22% of total chick mortality, and causing the death of 2% of chicks. Trichomoniasis deaths took place during the second half of the nestling period. The median age at death was 45.5 days. Although the presence of the parasite was not related to the composition of the diet or parental age, pairs that developed the disease ate more pigeons and included more often non-adult birds. At present trichomoniasis apparently has little demographic impact on the Bonelli's eagle population in Catalonia, but the eventual spread of this disease in chicks and its unknown effects on adults might be of concern.

The relative lack of epidemiological studies of natural populations is partly due to the difficulty of obtaining samples that are both large enough and representative of the population. Here, we present the result of an epidemiological study (December 1992–August 1995) of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) in a free-roaming population of domestic cats (Felis catus), with a special emphasis on sample bias. Over five trapping periods, the prevalence of FIV in sampled cats steadily declined. Across these samples we consistently achieved a very large sampling fraction (approximately 60% of the population), the sex ratio, age and weight distributions remained stable with time in the samples, and the sex ratio was similar in the samples and the population. These indices would normally indicate that our samples were representative, suggesting the decline in FIV prevalence to be real. However, a concomitant ecological study of the whole population revealed an important bias in the samples, with an initial high probability of capturing a few individuals, which appeared significantly more likely to be FIV-infected, and then a lower probability of recapturing them. Since our protocol resulted in a non-random sampling, subsequent trappings were designed to avoid this bias, by also capturing individuals who had previously learned to escape capture. This modified capture regime revealed that FIV prevalence was in fact constant in the population. This study shows how samples of large size, which are stable and appear representative of the population, can still be biased. These results may have major implications for other studies based on trapping.

The safety and efficacy of a remotely delivered multivalent Pasteurella haemolytica supernatant vaccine (serotypes A2 and T10) were examined in captive Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis). Twenty bighorn sheep were grouped according to baseline leukotoxin neutralizing antibody titers (≤2 or .2 log₂⁻¹) and vaccination history (previously vaccinated or unvaccinated). Within these groups, animals were randomly assigned to one of two delivery treatments: hand injection (control) or biobullet implantation. All bighorns received a single dose from the same lot of vaccine (n = 10/treatment); four additional animals were injected intramuscularly with 0.9% saline as unvaccinated sentinels. Mild, transient lameness one day after hand injection or biobullet implantation was the only adverse effect. Serum neutralizing antibody titers to P. haemolytica leukotoxin differed between delivery treatments (P = 0.009) and among baseline titer/vaccination history groups (P = 0.013). Neutralizing titers were higher among hand-injected bighorns. Although neutralizing titers were lower among implanted bighorns than hand-injected controls at 1 wk (P = 0.002) and 2 wk (P = 0.021) after vaccination, seroconversion rates in response to implantation (6/10) and hand injection (9/10) did not differ (P = 0.303). Agglutinating antibody titers to T10 were high and did not vary over time or between delivery treatments. Agglutinating antibody titers to A2 in the hand-injected controls were not different (P ≥ 0.07) than those in bighorns vaccinated with biobullet implantation. These data demonstrate that although hand injection elicits higher absolute titers, biobullet implantation may also stimulate effective antibody responses to P. haemolytica supernatant vaccine. Further evaluation of biobullet vaccination against pneumonic pasteurellosis in free-ranging populations of wild bighorn sheep is warranted.

A field study was conducted on Ossabaw Island (Georgia, USA) in March 1994 to evaluate four different types of bait for delivering orally effective biological agents to raccoons (Procyon lotor) and feral swine (Sus scrofa). A deep-fried corndog batter bait, which was previously shown to be ingested by both captive and free-ranging raccoons, and a polymer fishmeal bait which had been shown effective for both raccoons and feral swine were compared with a grain-based dog food meal polymer bait topically coated with corn oil and cornmeal or with fish oil and fishmeal. Tracking stations were used to determine the number of each bait type visited and removed by animals visiting stations. We found no significant differences in the numbers of different baits removed by either species. These data support the results of earlier studies which also indicated that an inexpensive grain-based matrix bait surface-coated with attractive flavors can be used to deliver oral biologics to problem species.

The effect of three configurations of the jaw of kill-traps on time to loss of palpebral reflex of brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) was assessed. Traps were Standard, with an offset rotating jaw closing past a pear-shaped constriction, Offset, with a rotating jaw closing past a straight edge, and Opposing, with a rotating jaw closing directly onto a static bar. Possums captured in the Standard and Offset traps had significantly lower times to loss of palpebral reflexes (42 and 50 sec respectively) than those captured in Opposing traps (122 sec). Both the Standard and Offset traps achieved total occlusion of both carotid arteries more frequently than the Opposing trap. Thus the killing effectiveness of kill traps designed for capturing possums can be improved by offsetting the jaws without the need to increase the power of the trap. Therefore, for some target species, such modifications might satisfy the demands of animal welfare proponents for traps that kill rapidly, without compromising trapper safety.

In order to determine if the absence of vitamin C in the diet of capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) causes scurvy, a group of seven young individuals were fed food pellets without ascorbic acid, while another group of eight individuals received the same food with 1 g of ascorbic acid per animal per day. Animals in the first group developed signs of scurvy-like gingivitis, breaking of the incisors and death of one animal. Clinical signs appeared between 25 and 104 days from the beginning of the trial in all individuals. Growth rates of individuals deprived of vitamin C was considerably less than those observed in the control group. Deficiency of ascorbic acid had a severe effect on reproduction of another population of captive capybaras. We found that the decrease in ascorbic acid content in the diet affected pregnancy, especially during the first stages. The results obtained suggest that it is necessary to supply a suitable quantity of vitamin C in the diet of this species in captivity.

Blood biochemical parameters were compared for green turtles (Chelonia mydas) with and without green turtle fibropapillomatosis (GTFP) from both captive and wild populations in Hawaii (USA) and from a captive population from California (USA), during the period between 1994 and 1996. Statistical analysis did not detect an influence of disease in any of the blood parameters for free-ranging turtles; however, captive turtles in Hawaii with GTFP had significantly higher levels of alkaline phosphatase and significantly lower levels of lactate compared to non-tumored captive turtles. Multivariate analysis found that biochemical profiles could be used to accurately predict if turtles were healthy or afflicted with GTFP. Discriminant function analysis correctly classified turtles as being with or without GTFP in 89% of cases, suggesting that diseased animals had a distinct signature of plasma biochemistries. Measurements of blood parameters identified numerous differences between captive and wild green turtles in Hawaii. Levels of corticosterone, lactate, triglyceride, glucose, and calcium were significantly higher in wild green turtles as compared to captive turtles, while uric acid levels were significantly lower in wild turtles as compared to captive turtles. Additionally, turtles from Sea World of California (San Diego, California, USA), which had been in captivity the longest, had higher levels of alanine aminotransferase and triglycerides as compared to nearly all other groups. Differences in diet, sampling methods, environmental conditions, and turtle size, help to interpret these results.

Changes in hematological and serum biochemistry parameters in female zinc (Zn)-dosed farm-raised mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) fed four different diets were examined. Sixty ducks received an average dose of 0.97 g of Zn in the form of eight, 3.30-mm diameter shot pellets containing 98% Zn and 2% tin, and another 60 ducks were sham-dosed as controls. Fifteen ducks from each of the two dosing groups were assigned to one of four dietary treatments: corn only, corn with soil, commercial duck ration only, or commercial duck ration with soil. Shot-pellet dissolution rates ranged from 7 mg/Zn/day to 27 mg/Zn/day. Regardless of diet, the Zn dose resulted in mortality; incoordination; paralysis and anorexia; decreased body, liver, pancreas, gonad, and gizzard weight; increased kidney weight; and macroscopic lesions. Zn-dosed ducks had a lower mean erythrocyte packed cell volume (PCV), higher mean reticulocyte count, and a greater number of individuals with immature and/or abnormal erythrocytes, than did control mallards. Mean total leucocyte counts were higher in Zn-dosed ducks than in controls. Zn-dosed ducks that had soil available had higher leucocyte counts than those without soil. Zn-dosed ducks were characterized by a marked heterophilia and relative lymphopenia. In Zn-dosed ducks, the mean lymphocyte count was highest in those provided a commercial duck ration, and lowest in those fed corn. In control ducks, the mean lymphocyte count was highest in ducks fed corn, and lowest in those provided soil along with a commercial duck ration. Zn-dosed mallards had higher serum aspartate aminotransferase and amylase levels, and lower alkaline phosphatase activities than control ducks. Serum phosphorus and uric acid concentrations were higher, and calcium, glucose, and total protein levels lower, in Zn-dosed ducks than in control ducks. Diet did affect serum calcium, phosphorus, total protein, and uric acid concentrations. Differences in erythrocyte and leucocyte parameters, serum enzyme activities, and metabolite concentrations were associated with dose and diet effects. Diets high in protein and other organic matter and calcium and phosphorus did not prevent or substantially alleviate Zn toxicosis in farm-raised mallard ducks.

The use of medetomidine and ketamine, alone and in combination with isoflurane, with atipamezole reversal was evaluated for immobilizing 51 California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) for a variety of medical procedures at a rehabilitation center in northern California (USA) between May 1997 and August 1998. Animals were given 140 μg/kg medetomidine with 2.5 mg/kg ketamine intramuscularly. Mean (±SD) time to maximal effect was 8 ± 5 min. At the end of the procedure, animals were given 200 μg/kg atipamezole intramuscularly. Immobilization and recovery times were, respectively, 25 ± 12 and 9 ± 7 min for 35 animals maintained with medetomidine and ketamine alone and 58 ± 30 and 9 ± 9 min for 16 animals intubated and maintained with isoflurane. No mortalities occurred as a result of the immobilizations. Disadvantages of the medetomidine and ketamine combination included a moderate variation in time to maximal effect and plane of sedation, a large injection volume and high cost. However, this combination offers safe and reversible immobilization that can be easily administered by the intramuscular route and that produces a plane of anesthesia that is sufficient to carry out most routine diagnostic procedures.

Nine-banded (n = 47) and great (n = 31) long-nosed armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus and Dasypus kappleri) were immobilized for clinical examination and collection of biological samples as part of a wildlife rescue during the filling of a hydroelectric dam (Petit Saut, French Guiana) from May 1994 to April 1995. Three intramuscular (i.m.) anesthetic combinations were evaluated: (1) tiletamine/zolazepam (T/Z) at a dose of 8.5 mg/kg in 12 nine-banded long-nosed armadillos (NBA) and 10 great long-nosed armadillos (GLA), (2) ketamine at 40 mg/kg combined with xylazine at 1.0 mg/kg (K/X) in 18 NBA and nine GLA, and (3) ketamine at 7.5 mg/kg combined with medetomidine at 75 μg/kg (K/M) in 17 NBA and 12 GLA, antagonized by 375 μg/kg atipamezole. Induction was smooth, ranged from x̄ ± SD = 2.8 ± 0.6 to 4.3 ± 1.8 min, and did not differ significantly between protocols, species, or sex. In NBA, immobilization time ranged from 43.8 ± 27.8 to 66.5 ± 40.0 min and did not differ between protocols or sex. Muscle relaxation was judged to be better with K/X and K/M versus T/Z. In GLA, the response to the anesthetic protocols was more variable and immobilization time ranged from 30.4 ± 6.2 to 98.4 ± 33.7 min. The main difference was observed in GLA females receiving the T/Z combination, in which immobilization time was significantly longer versus males, but also versus GLA K/M group, and versus NBA T/Z group. Effects on body temperature, heart rate and respiratory rate were limited. Thirty six to 50% of the individuals showed hypoxemia (S_pO₂ < 85%) through-out anesthesia and values <80% also were recorded but the hypoxemia was not associated with clinical signs. With T/Z and K/X, recovery was irregular and prolonged up to 2 to 3 hr in some individuals. In K/M groups, first standing was observed 1.0 to 16.4 min after i.m. atipamezole injection without adverse effects. Finally, the three anesthetic combinations used in this study were effective and safe agents for 30 to 40 min immobilizations including minor surgery procedures. The ability to antagonize the medetomidine-induced sedation with atipamezole significantly reduces the recovery time, making the K/M combination preferable, especially in field conditions.

Wild-caught eastern barred bandicoots (Perameles gunnii) initially seronegative to Toxoplasma gondii, were inoculated orally with approximately 100 T. gondii oocysts. The bandicoots were maintained in indoor pens under laboratory conditions and observed daily. Serial blood samples were tested for agglutinating antibodies to T. gondii. Inoculated bandicoots died 15 and 17 days post infection. A rise in Direct Agglutination Test (DAT) titres was detected at the time of death (1:256, 1:64 respectively). Clinical observations, serological changes, gross findings at necropsy, and histopathological changes were consistent with acute toxoplasmosis. The findings indicate that eastern barred bandicoots are likely to die from primary T. gondii infection, often even before detectable antibodies are produced, reinforcing the significance of toxoplasmosis as a potential contributor to the reduction in numbers of wild populations of eastern barred bandicoots.

An experimental feeding study was designed to assess the role of earthworms in the transmission of Toxoplasma gondii infection to eastern barred bandicoots (Perameles gunnii). Six animals with no agglutinating antibodies to T. gondii were fed artificially cultured earthworms that had been maintained in autoclaved nutrient-enriched soil. Two animals were given earthworms that had been maintained in soil contaminated with T. gondii oocysts (P89/VEG strain); two animals were fed on earthworms, which initially had been exposed to soil containing T. gondii oocysts then transferred through three changes of sterile soil; two control bandicoots were fed earthworms maintained in sterile soil. Both bandicoots fed earthworms maintained in T. gondii contaminated soil died 11 and 14 days after feeding. The necropsy findings were consistent with acute toxoplasmosis. Bandicoots fed earthworms exposed to oocysts but then transferred through changes of sterilized soil remained healthy as did control animals. All surviving animals remained seronegative over the 6 wk observation period after feeding. These findings confirm that earthworms, a major component of the natural diet of P. gunnii, can transmit T. gondii infection. It appears that oocysts present in the alimentary tracts of the worms, rather than infective stages of T. gondii in worm somatic tissues, are responsible for these infections.

Twenty free-ranging coyotes (Canis latrans) in Oklahoma (USA) were examined for the presence of naturally occurring infections with Hepatozoon americanum and to determine if bone lesions attributable to H. americanum were present. Although eight of the 20 free-ranging coyotes were found to be naturally infected with H. americanum, no bone lesions were detected. In addition, two coyote pups were exposed to H. americanum oocysts collected from experimentally infected ticks and the course of the resulting infection was followed. Both experimentally infected coyotes developed hepatozoonosis detectable by specific muscle lesions beginning 4 wk after exposure. Bone lesions were detected grossly and histologically at necropsy. Histologic evidence of periosteal bone proliferation ranged from segmental areas of plump hypercellularity and thickening of the periosteum, with minor degrees of osteogenesis, to extensive proliferation of woven bone and periosteal hypercellularity and thickening. Nymphal Amblyomma maculatum that fed on one of the experimentally infected coyote pups became infected and mature H. americanum oocysts were recovered when the ticks molted to adults. These results demonstrate that coyotes in some parts of Oklahoma are naturally infected with H. americanum, that experimentally infected coyotes can develop clinical disease, including characteristic bone lesions, and that A. maculatum nymphs can acquire infections by feeding on them.

Louse flies were collected from 401 birds of 32 species captured in autumn of 1996 in Baja California Sur (México). Only one louse fly species (Microlynchia pusilla) was found. It occurred in four of the 164 common ground doves (Columbina passerina) collected. This is a new a host species for this louse fly.

Serum samples from 28 free-ranging Florida panthers (Puma concolor coryi) and seven mountain lions from Texas (P. concolor stanleyana) living in south Florida (USA) between 1997 to 1998 were tested for antibodies to Bartonella henselae. Twenty percent (7/35) of the samples were reactive to B. henselae antisera with a subspecies prevalence of 18% (5/ 28) for Florida panthers and 28% (2/7) for cougars from Texas (USA). There was not a significant sex related difference in infection rates among the Florida panthers. Antibody prevalence was higher in panthers <2-yr of age (40%) compared to panthers >2-yr (13%). Compared to studies of antibody prevalence in mountain lions (P. concolor) from California (USA), overall seroprevalence was lower as was prevalence in panthers >2-yr-old. However, the seroprevalence in animals <2-yr from southern Florida was similar to prevalences reported in mountain lions or domestic felids in California.

Wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) trapped within California (n = 715) or imported into California from other states (n = 381) from 1986 to 1996 were tested for exposure to certain disease agents. Prevalence of antibody to Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma meleagridis, Salmonella pullorum, Salmonella typhimurium, Newcastle disease virus, and avian influenza virus was low (0–4%) for wild turkeys trapped within California. With the exception of antibody prevalence to M. meleagridis of 33%, the same was true for wild turkeys imported into California from other states. Antibody prevalence to Mycoplasma synoviae was 8–10% for both groups.

Pestiviruses were isolated from three eland (Taurotragus oryx) in Zimbabwe. The viruses were characterised by typing with monoclonal antibodies and by partial genetic sequencing. All were similar to bovine viral diarrhea viruses commonly isolated from cattle. This suggests that bovine viral diarrhea virus can spread from cattle to eland.

In North Dakota (USA) during April 1998, a ranched female bison (Bison bison) was found dead. At gross necropsy, there was profound hair loss and consolidated lung lobes. Intracytoplasmic neuronal inclusions suggestive of Negri bodies were observed in the brain stem and hippocampus, and a diagnosis of rabies was confirmed by the fluorescent antibody test. Antigenic typing demonstrated the occurrence of a rabies virus variant associated with skunks from the upper mid-western USA. This case of a rabid bison was one of only four such instances recorded from the USA over the past 40 yr, and is the first case report of rabies in a bison that reports clinical, pathologic, and antigenic findings. Although rabies in bison is rare, veterinarians and wildlife managers that work closely with such non-traditional species are reminded of the dangers that zoonoses such as rabies present.

The effects of grain storage containers on aflatoxin production, and the relationship between the level of aflatoxin and the number and weight of fluorescing kernels were determined in corn (Zea maize) stored in controlled climate regimes. Two hundred and forty 100-g samples were held up to 3 mos using four types of storage containers placed in four climates. Storage containers included corn placed in metal cans, paper bags, plastic bags, and paper bags placed in plastic bags. Climates were constant during the duration of the project and included a combination of temperatures and humidities. Temperatures were 29–32 C and 14–18 C; relative humidities were 85–88% and 35–40%. In addition, corn was exposed to environmental conditions conductive for aflatoxin production and 100 g samples were randomly collected, examined under ultraviolet light for fluorescence, and then quantified for aflatoxin levels. Corn samples tested negative for aflatoxin at the beginning of the project. Main (i.e., container, climate, and month) and interactive effects were not observed. Mean levels of aflatoxin ranged from 0 to 151 μg/kg. Aflatoxin was produced regardless of type of storage container, time of storage, and climatic conditions; however, only 8% of the samples produced aflatoxin levels that exceeded 50 μg/kg. Fluorescing corn ranged from 0 to 19 kernels per sample, while aflatoxin levels ranged from 0 to 1,375 μg/kg for the same samples. No relationships were found between the number and weight of fluorescing kernels of corn and aflatoxin levels. The black light test yielded a false negative rate of 23% when in fact the aflatoxin concentrations exceeded 50 μg/kg. Therefore, quantifying fluorescing grain under UV light should not be considered a feasible alternative for aflatoxin testing of grain intended for wildlife.

A northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) was observed with partial paralysis on 3 March 1997 and found dead on 8 March 1997 on Di-Lane Plantation Wildlife Management Area (Burke County, Georgia, USA). The juvenile male was necropsied by the Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study (Athens, Georgia) and diagnosed with lead toxicosis. The bobwhite had liver tissue lead levels of 399 parts per million wet weight and two worn 1-mm diameter lead shot pellets were found in the gizzard.

During a routine telemetry flight of the Mojave Desert (California, USA) in August 1995, mortality signals were detected from two of 12 radio-collared female desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) in the vicinity of Old Dad Peak in San Bernardino County (California). A series of field investigations determined that at least 45 bighorn sheep had died near two artificial water catchments (guzzlers), including 13 bighorn sheep which had presumably drowned in a guzzler tank. Samples from water contaminated by decomposing bighorn sheep carcasses and hemolyzed blood from a fresh bighorn sheep carcass were tested for the presence of pesticides, heavy metals, strychnine, blue-green algae, Clostridium botulinum toxin, ethylene glycol, nitrates, nitrites, sodium, and salts. Mouse bioassay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay detected type C botulinum toxin in the hemolyzed blood and in fly larvae and pupae. This, coupled with negative results from other analyses, led us to conclude that type C botulinum poisoning was most likely responsible for the mortality of bighorn sheep outside the guzzler tank.