From January 1996 through April 1997, the geographic distribution, etiology, demographics, seasonality, and prevalence of an intracranial abscessation/suppurative meningoencephalitits syndrome in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were evaluated by surveying wildlife disease diagnostic laboratories and by examining both natural mortality and hunter-harvested deer skulls from North America. Intracranial abscesses were diagnosed as the cause of death or illness in 97 of nearly 4,500 (2.2%) white-tailed deer examined from 12 states and four Canadian provinces by the diagnostic laboratories. The bacterium Arcanobacterium pyogenes was isolated from 61% of cases; 18 other genera of bacteria also were isolated. The disease was strongly gender-biased (P < 0.01) with 87% of cases occurring in males, and the overall prevalence among males was 4.9%. Cases were most common among antlered males (≥1 yr) with few cases among male fawns. Among antlered males, cases were seasonal, primarily occurring from September through April. Four hundred eighteen skulls from deer found dead in the field were examined from southeastern USA, and of the 119 used for further evaluation, 9% had characteristic lesions. Skulls from hunter-harvested males in the southeastern USA had a lesion prevalence of 1.4%. The similarity of disease prevalence among male deer found dead in the field (9.0%) and deer examined as southeastern diagnostic laboratory cases (8.4%) suggests that this disease accounts for slightly <10% of the natural mortality for yearling and adult male white-tailed deer in the southeastern region. The strong bias for occurrence among males suggests this disease may affect quality deer management strategies.

Mycoplasma alligatoris was the suspected etiology of an epidemic of acute multisystemic inflammatory disease which emerged in captive American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in Florida (USA) in 1995. In an experimental inoculation study conducted from April through October 1999, 18 alligators were inoculated with 10², 10⁴, or 10⁶ colony forming units (CFU) of M. alligatoris by instillation into the glottis. As early as 1 wk post-inoculation (PI), mycoplasma were cultured from blood of three of six alligators inoculated with 10⁶ CFU. Two of those died and the third was euthanatized within 4 wk PI. Necropsy gross findings included fibrinous polyserositis and polyarthritis. Histopathologic changes in affected individuals included pulmonary edema, interstitial pneumonia, pericarditis, myocarditis, meningitis, and synovitis. Mycoplasma were cultured quantitatively in high numbers from trachea, lung, coelomic cavity, liver, spleen, interior of pericardial sac, heart, blood, brain, and limb joints. In alligators inoculated with 10⁶ CFU, heterophilia and moderate hyperglycemia peaked about 4 wk PI, and seroconversion occurred by 6 to 8 wk PI. Necropsy gross and histologic findings were generally unremarkable for the surviving alligators inoculated with 10⁶ CFU, alligators inoculated with 10² or 10⁴ CFU, and four uninoculated control alligators. Mycoplasma were not cultured at any time point from those alligators. The findings confirm that M. alligatoris can cause fulminant inflammatory disease and rapid death of alligators.

Electrocardiographic reference values were established on apparently healthy buzzards (Buteo buteo) in Lugo (Spain) from March 1997 to June 1999. All birds were anesthetized with isofluorane and placed in dorsal recumbence. The standard and augmented unipolar limb leads electrocardiograms were recorded in 65 buzzards. The wave forms were analyzed in lead II at 50 mm/sec and at 1 cm = 1 mV to determine P, PR, QRS, T and QT durations and P, QRS and T amplitudes. The polarity of each wave form was tabulated in all leads. The mean electrical axis (MEA) for the frontal plane was calculated using leads II and III. The mean heart rate was 325.2 ± 52.9 beats/min. In lead II, the P wave was positive, the dominant pattern of QRS complex was QS and the T wave was always positive. The average value of the MEA was −99.2 ± 7.7°. Establishment of normal electrocardiogram (EKG) values will facilitate a better understanding of EKG changes seen in many diseases of these birds.

Ranch-reared mink (Mustela vison) were used as a model in an experimental trial to investigate the potential effects of exposure to two petroleum products on sea otters (Enhydra lutris). Mink were exposed either dermally on one occasion 60 days prior to breeding or via low level contamination of their diets daily from 60 days prior to breeding (January 1994) until weaning of kits (June 1994). For dermal exposure, we placed mink in either a slick of Alaskan North Slope crude oil (n = 24) or bunker C fuel oil (n = 24) on sea water or sea water alone (n = 10) for 1 min. For dietary exposure, we fed mink rations containing 500 ppm of either Alaskan North Slope crude oil (n = 24) or bunker C fuel oil (n = 24; control, n = 15). The number of liveborn kits did not differ significantly among mink exposed dermally (5.0 kits/female for crude oil and 6.5 kits/female for bunker C fuel oil) and unexposed controls (5.3 kits/female). However, only 2.3 and 0.7 kits were produced per female for those exposed through the diet to crude oil and bunker C fuel oil, respectively. Females with reduced reproductive success had no clinical signs of toxicosis or behavioral abnormalities. In addition, kits of females exposed through the diet had poor survival to weaning. Once mature, kits born to females exposed to bunker C fuel oil in the diet had significantly reduced reproductive success (3.4 kits/female) although their only exposure to the petroleum products was in utero or during nursing. Therefore, it is possible that sea otter populations consuming contaminated food sources or colonizing previously oiled habitats will have reduced reproductive success.

In this study, we evaluated concentrations of twelve essential and non-essential elements (As, Cd, Co, Cu, Pb, Mg, Mn, Hg, Mo, Se, Ag, and Zn) in tissues of bowhead (Balaena mysticetus) and beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) whales from arctic Alaska (USA) and northwestern Canada. Tissue samples were collected between 1983 and 1997, mostly in 1995–97. The essential elements are reported to develop reference ranges for health status determination, and to help assess known or suspected interactions affecting toxicoses of cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg). In some tissues, Cd, Hg, and selenium (Se) were present at concentrations that have been associated with toxicoses in some domestic animals. Nevertheless, tissue levels of all elements were within ranges that have been reported previously in marine mammals. While mean Ag concentrations in beluga whale liver were relatively high (15.91 μg/g ww), Ag was not associated with hepatic Se levels or age, contrary to previous findings. Significant associations included: Cd with age, Zn, or Cu; Cu with age, Zn or Ag; and Hg with age, Se, Zn, or Cu. This study found hepatic Hg:Se molar ratios to be consistently lower than unity and different between species. Possible explanations for observed elemental correlations (i.e., interactions) and ancillary mechanisms of Cd and Hg detoxification are discussed.

In this study, we evaluated concentrations of twelve essential and non-essential elements (As, Cd, Co, Cu, Pb, Mg, Mn, Hg, Mo, Se, Ag, and Zn) in tissues of ringed seals (Phoca hispida) and polar bears (Ursus maritimus) of arctic Alaska (USA). All samples were collected between 1995–97 in conjunction with subsistence harvests. The essential elements are reported to help develop reference ranges for health status determination and to help assess known or suspected interactions affecting toxicoses of cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg). In some tissues, Cd, Hg, and selenium (Se) were present at concentrations that have been associated with toxicoses in some domestic animals. Nevertheless, tissue levels of all elements were within ranges that have been reported previously in other pinnipeds and polar bears. Significant associations included: Cd with Zn or Cu; Cu with Zn or Ag; and Hg with Se, Zn, or Cu. This study found hepatic Hg: Se molar ratios to be lower than unity and different between the two species. Based upon significant differences in mean tissue elemental concentrations for polar bear versus ringed seal, we concluded that biomagnification factors (bear/seal) were significant for: Cu in liver and muscle; Pb in kidney; Se in kidney and muscle; Zn in liver and muscle; and Hg in liver. Possible explanations for observed elemental correlations (i.e., interactions) and ancillary mechanisms of Cd and Hg detoxification are discussed.

Six yearling American bison (Bison bison bison) bulls and one yearling ewe (Ovis aries) were inoculated intradermally and subcutaneously with 2 × 10⁵ plaque forming units (pfu) of bluetongue (BT) virus serotype 11. Two uninoculated yearling bison bulls served as negative controls. Blood samples were collected for serology and virus isolation on 0, 4, 7, 11 and 14 days post-inoculation (dpi) and every 2 wk thereafter to 127 dpi. Every 4 wk a new ewe was inoculated with a pooled sample of whole blood from the six infected bison, and each sheep was monitored for 28 days for clinical signs of BT and seroconversion. Bluetongue viremia was detected in all six inoculated bison starting at 4 to 28 dpi and was no longer detectable from 42 dpi onward. Pooled blood samples collected at 28, 56, 84 and 112 dpi from the six infected bison were not infectious for sheep. The six infected bison seroconverted by 11 to 28 dpi on a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and by 28 dpi on the serum neutralization test, and all remained seropositive thereafter. No clinical signs or lesions attributable to BT were observed in the infected bison or controls. There was evidence that a small amount of epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus type 2 had been present in the BT virus inoculum; reasons are given for concluding that this did not affect the results of the BT study.

During 1993–96 the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (Canada) implemented a research project to evaluate the efficacy of three candidate baits to deliver oral rabies vaccine to wild raccoons (Procyon lotor). Extensive field testing revealed that raccoon acceptance of Sugar-Vanilla baits (SV) at densities of 200/km² and 400/km², hand-placed in urban habitats of Scarborough (Ontario) during 1993, was 74% and 82%, respectively. Raccoon density in those areas averaged 11/km². Aerial placement of SV baits in rural habitats in Barrie (Ontario) during 1993 and 1994, yielded raccoon acceptance levels of 58% with a density of 100 baits/km², 59% at 75 baits/km², and 47% at 50 baits/km². Raccoon acceptance of SV baits was significantly lower in areas baited at the density of 50/km². Acceptance of Cheese baits (CH) at a density of 75 baits/km² was 52%. During 1996 trials in Barrie, modified SV baits with blister packs protruding through the matrix yielded raccoon acceptance values of 51% at a bait density of 54/km², whereas acceptance of regular SV baits was 39% at a density of 51 baits/km². Pooling of bait acceptance data for all years revealed that bait acceptance was highest for adult male raccoons. Raccoon density in rural habitats (Barrie, Ontario) where the studies took place, averaged 11–13/km². Puncture and impact testing of blister packs in baits suggested that they would adequately serve as a vehicle to contain oral rabies vaccine for delivery to raccoons via baits.

Wolves (Canis lupus) were captured in three areas of Interior Alaska (USA). Four hundred twenty-five sera were tested for evidence of exposure to canine coronavirus by means of an indirect fluorescent antibody procedure. Serum antibody prevalence averaged 70% (167/240) during the spring collection period and 25% (46/185) during the autumn collection period. Prevalence was 0% (0/42) in the autumn pup cohort (age 4–5 mo), and 60% (58/97) in the spring pup cohort (age 9–10 mo). Prevalence was lowest in the Eastern Interior study area. A statistical model indicates that prevalence increased slightly each year in all three study areas. These results indicate that transmission occurs primarily during the winter months, antibody decay is quite rapid, and reexposure during the summer is rare.

To determine if the Siberian polecat (Mustela eversmannii) represents a suitable model for the study of plague pathogenesis and prevention in the black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes), polecats were exposed to 10³, 10⁷, or 10¹⁰ Yersinia pestis organisms by subcutaneous injection; an additional group was exposed to Y. pestis via ingestion of a plague-killed mouse. Plague killed 88% of polecats exposed to Y. pestis (71% mortality in the 10³ group, 100% mortality in the 10⁷ and 10¹⁰ groups, and 83% mortality in the mouse-fed group). Within the challenged group, mean day of death post-challenge ranged from 3.6 to 7.6 days; all polecats died on or before day 12 post-challenge. Animals receiving the lowest parenteral dose survived significantly longer than those receiving higher parenteral doses. Within challenged animals, mean survival time was lower in those presenting with significant weight loss by day 3, lethargy, and low fecal output; time to onset of lethargy and other signs was also related to risk of dying and/or plague dose. Six polecats developed serum antibody titers to the Y. pestis F1 protein. Three seropositive polecats survived the initial challenge and a subsequent exposure to a plague-killed mouse, while two seropositive animals later died. This study confirms that the Siberian polecat is susceptible to plague and suggests that this species will offer an appropriate surrogate for black-footed ferrets in future plague studies and related vaccine trials.

In order to determine the prevalence and distribution of the human pathogen, Escherichia coli O157:H7, in free-ranging deer, hunters were asked to collect and submit fecal samples from deer harvested during a regular firearm season (14–22 November 1998). Prior to the season, 47% of the hunters with permits in the southeastern Nebraska (USA) study area indicated a willingness to participate in the study. Approximately 25% of successful hunters in the area submitted deer fecal samples. Escherichia coli O157:H7 was cultured from four (0.25%) of 1,608 total samples submitted. All of the fecal samples that were properly identified (1,426) and all that were positive for E. coli O157:H7 were from white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). We were unable to detect a statistically significant geographic distribution pattern of E. coli O157:H7. The presence of E. coli O157:H7 in the feces of free-ranging deer has implications not only for hunters, consumers of venison, and others in contact with deer or deer feces, but also for the development of strategies aimed at reducing and/or controlling this pathogen in water sources and domestic livestock.

Biodiversity survey and inventory have resulted in new information on the distribution of Protostrongylidae in Dall's sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) from the Northwest Territories (NT, Canada) and from Alaska (AK, USA). In 1998, Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei adults were found for the first time in the skeletal muscles of Dall's sheep in the Mackenzie Mountains (NT). Adult P. odocoilei were associated with petechial and ecchymotic hemorrhages and localized myositis; eggs and larvae in the lungs were associated with diffuse granulomatous pneumonia. Experimental infections of the slugs Deroceras laeve and Deroceras reticulatum with dorsal-spined first-stage larvae assumed to be P. odocoilei, from ground-collected feces from Dall's sheep in the Mackenzie Mountains, yielded third-stage larvae by at least 28 (in D. laeve) and 48 (in D. reticulatum) days post-infection. Third-stage larvae emerged from D. laeve between days 19 and 46 post-infection and emergence occurred both at room temperature and at 10 to 12 C. Protostrongylus stilesi were definitively identified from the lungs of Dall's sheep collected in the Mackenzie Mountains, NT in 1998. Specimens collected from sheep in the Mackenzie Mountains, NT in 1971–72, and the Alaska Range, AK in 1972 were also confirmed as P. stilesi. Lung pathology associated with adults, eggs, and larvae of P. stilesi was similar to that described in bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis). Concurrent infections with P. odocoilei and P. stilesi in a single host have not been previously reported.

Ivermectin was used to treat sarcoptic mange in Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica). Its therapeutic effectiveness was analyzed when it was administered through subcutaneous injection, to sick animals in the consolidation stage of mange (third phase) and, with double injections to chronically affected animals (fourth phase) at a dosage of 0.2 or 0.4 mg/kg body weight (bw). Three wk after treatment, the animals in the third phase of mange treated with a high dose (0.4 mg/kg bw) of ivermectin were completely cured. The same result was achieved after 4 wk of treatment in those animals in phase 3 of mange when 0.2 mg/kg body weight was used. Double injection with ivermectin, even at high doses, did not guarantee the complete cure of all cases of sarcoptic mange in the chronic stage (phase 4); only three of six animals were free of Sarcoptes scabiei. The second experiment consisted on the application of a sanitation program in order to obtain a population of Spanish ibex free from S. scabiei, starting with free-ranging animals, some of them healthy and others sick. After capture the animals were classified as chronically ill, in which case they were excluded from the program, mite carriers and healthy specimens. All the animals were treated first topically with foxim (500 mg/l) and subcutaneously with ivermectin (0.4 mg/kg bw). The infected animals were housed in the treatment pen, and received two doses of ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg bw) at an interval of 15 days, then spent 15 days in the quarantine pen, where they received a further dose before they were included in the pool of healthy animals, and immediately were placed in the quarantine phase. The sanitation we implemented was fully effective in curing the affliction of Spanish ibex affected by S. scabiei.

A survey of blood parasites was conducted in February 1995 on white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys) wintering in two environmentally different localities of Baja California Sur (Mexico). Blood parasite prevalence was higher in La Purísima (49%) than in San José del Cabo (8%), but there were no differences between ages or sexes within each locality. All haematozoan infections were by Haemoproteus coatneyi, except one bird in each site that were positive for Trypanosoma sp. We found no evidence for the predicted negative relationship between host body condition and intensity of parasitism. The relatively high prevalence in one site suggests that an increase of hematozoa transmission may occur in that area.

The rabies antibody status of juvenile foxes (Vulpes vulpes) was evaluated in large-scale, long-term oral vaccination campaigns. Between 9% (n = 659) and 21% (n = 42) of the juvenile foxes examined in 1993–94 and 1997, respectively, showed rabies virus neutralizing antibody (nAb)-titers ≥ 0.5 IU/ml following bait distribution in spring. The presence of nAb may be due to either the passive transfer of maternal antibodies, or active immunization derived from spring vaccination campaigns. The latter alternative is supported by the finding of nAb throughout late spring and the summer months, and the finding of the tetracycline (TC) biomarker, used in the vaccine-baits, in 27% (n = 43) and 37% (n = 155) of juveniles in 1993–94 and 1997, respectively. It was not possible to distinguish nAb originating from passive immunity from that arising from active immunization. However, biological data on the whelping period of red foxes, on dynamics of maternal antibodies and the timing of oral vaccination, gave evidence that a superposition of these processes is likely. Evidence from these studies suggests that oral vaccination coinciding with the spring perinatal period may produce immunity in both parents and only in a certain percentage of the offspring simultaneously. This phenomenon should be useful in further enhancing the efficacy of oral vaccination in red foxes.

Between August 1993 and September 1994 we documented serological responses of coyotes (Canis latrans) vaccinated with two commercial rabies vaccines licensed for use in domestic dogs. Serologic responses were documented by testing for rabies virus neutralizing antibodies with the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT) at 30, 90, 180, 270, and 365 days post-vaccination. All coyotes vaccinated with Imrab 3® (Rhone-Merieux, Inc.), and 75% of those vaccinated with Dura-Rab 3® (Immunovet, Inc.) seroconverted, as evidenced by the presence of antirabies antibody titers ≥1:5 in one or more of the five post-vaccination samples. The percent of coyotes showing a titer ≥1:5 was generally greater and titer levels appeared higher and more persistent among animals vaccinated with Imrab 3® than Dura-Rab 3®. Presence of titers via RFFIT tests demonstrates the antibodies produced in coyotes by these rabies vaccines functionally bind and neutralize rabies virus in vitro, but these results do not constitute a demonstration of protection required for licensure for use in coyotes.

From 1997 to 2000, complete necropsy and histopathologic investigations were performed on 157 free-ranging European brown hares (Lepus europaeus) found dead throughout Switzerland. Organ samples of all these individuals (157 livers and 107 spleens available) were tested for European brown hare syndrome virus (EBHSV)-antigen by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test kit. Furthermore, 60 additional blood samples were tested for antibodies against EBHSV by ELISA. In addition, liver samples of 87 free-ranging mountain hares (Lepus timidus) hunted in 1996 were tested for EBHSV-antigen. In two European brown hares from southern Switzerland lesions suggestive of changes induced by EBHSV were present, and high titers of EBHSV-antigen were detected in both liver and spleen samples of these animals. Based on negative staining electron microscopy investigations of liver and spleen homogenates, we observed calicivirus in one antigen-positive hare. Low EBHSV-antigen titers were found in three additional European brown hares from central and western Switzerland, but EBHS-lesions were absent. Antibodies against EBHSV were not detected in any of the sera of European brown hares, and EBHSV-antigen was not found in the samples of mountain hares. This is the first report of EBHS in European brown hares from Switzerland.

In order to understand the epidemiology of Newcastle disease (ND) outbreaks in double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus), a study was conducted on wintering migratory cormorants (P. a. auritus) in Alabama and Mississippi (USA) and non-migratory cormorants (P. a. floridanus) that breed in Florida (USA). Antibodies against ND virus were detected by the hemagglutination-inhibition method in sera from 86 of 183 (47%) migratory cormorants over-wintering in eight roosting sites in Alabama and Mississippi between November, 1997 and April, 1999. Titers ranged from 5 to 40. Antibody prevalences in sera collected from females in early winter (November and December) (26%) and late winter (February and March) (56%) were significantly different (P = 0.0007). None of 45 serum samples from 1- to 7-wk-old nestlings from 11 colonies in Florida during the 1997–98 and 1998–99 breeding seasons was positive. However, antibodies were detected in yolk samples from 98 of 126 (78%) eggs collected in these same colonies. Titers ranged from 4 to 256. The prevalence of antibodies in eggs collected from fresh-water colonies (63% prevalence, n = 30) and salt-water colonies (82% prevalence, n = 96) was significantly different (P = 0.041). ND virus was not isolated from tissues of 18 cormorants and cloacal and tracheal swabs from 202 cormorants collected in Alabama and Mississippi; virus was also not isolated from cloacal and tracheal swabs from 51 nestlings from Florida.

Calcinosis circumscripta (CC) was found in a 10-yr-old female sitatunga (Bovidae; Tragelaphus spekei). At necropsy, there were two white coalescing nodules (3 × 5 × 2 cm, 2 × 2 × 1.5 cm) on the ventral side of the tongue. The cut surface of the nodules had multiple, well-circumscribed loculi with chalky appearance and gritty consistency, separated by thin strands of connective tissue. Histologically, the nodules contained multiple loculi of various sizes and shapes, which consisted of amorphous material that was pale basophilic with H&E stain, surrounded by fibrous connective tissue. Around the loculi were numerous foreign body giant cells and epithelioid macrophages; occasional lymphocyte aggregations also were seen. The amorphous material was positive for PAS and von Kossa's stain. Calcinosis circumscripta is rare in the Bovidae.

A case of malignant melanoma in the conjunctiva of the eyelid of a captive 13-yr-old female fallow deer (Dama dama) was studied. The black tumor that protruded to the palpebral conjunctiva of the right lower eyelid consisted of an infiltrative growth of melanin-containing neoplastic cells with marked cytological atypia. The tumor involved the conjunctiva of the right lower eyelid and infiltrated to the conjunctival epithelial layer, but did not reach the palpebral skin. Numerous mitotic figures and lymphatic invasions were observed. This is a very rare case of a malignant melanoma arising from the palpebral conjunctiva in a wild ruminant.

A serologic survey of influenza A antibodies was undertaken on 1,611 blood samples from five species of marine mammals collected from Arctic Canada from 1984–98. Sampling was done in 24 locations throughout the Canadian Arctic encompassing Sachs Harbor (72°N, 125°W), Northwest Territories in the west to Loks Land (63°N, 64°W), Nunavut in the east, to Eureka (80°N, 86°W), Nunavut in the north to Sanikiluaq (56°N, 79°W), Nunavut in the south. A competitive ELISA using a monoclonal antibody (Mab) against influenza A nucleoprotein (NP) was used. Five of 418 (1.2%) belugas (Delphinapterus leucas) and 23 of 903 (2.5%) ringed seals (Phoca hispida) were serologically positive. None of the 210 walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus), 76 narwhals (Monodon monoceros) and four bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) had detectable antibodies to influenza A. Positive belugas were identified from communities on southeast Baffin Island while positive ringed seals came from communities in the eastern, western and high Arctic. Virus isolation attempts on lung tissue from a seropositive beluga were unsuccessful. We believe that influenza A infection in marine mammals is sporadic, the infection is probably self-limiting, and it may not be able to be maintained in these animals. Although the predominant hemagglutinin (H) type was not determined and therefore the pathogenicity of the strains to humans is unknown, the hunting and consumption of marine mammals by the Inuit may put them at risk for influenza A infection.

An outbreak of conjunctivitis affected evening grosbeaks (Coccothraustes vespertinus) and pine grosbeaks (Pinicola enucleator) in Quebec (Canada) during the winter 1998–99. One to 30% of the individuals from these two species were sick at 13 feeding stations. Sick birds were thin and had unilateral or bilateral catarrhal and lymphoplasmacytic conjunctivitis and rhinitis, and mucopurulent infraorbital sinusitis. Mycoplasmal organisms were isolated in cultures in an affected evening grosbeak and identified as Mycoplasma gallisepticum by direct immunofluorescence. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) fin-gerprinting of this isolate resulted in a banding pattern that was identical to patterns of M. gallisepticum isolates made from similar lesions in house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) and American gold finches (Carduelis tristis) throughout eastern North America. Mycoplasma gallisepticum was identified by polymerase chain reaction in another evening grosbeak and a pine grosbeak. These observations suggest that the same strain of M. gallisepticum is the likely etiology for the observed disease in evening and pine grosbeaks in Canada and represent an extension of the host-species range for the ongoing epidemic of M. gallisepticum conjunctivitis in eastern North America.

The use of backyard feeders to attract avian wildlife is a common practice throughout the United States. However, feeding wildlife may create a problem due to aflatoxin, a harmful fungal metabolite, which can affect wildlife that are fed contaminated grain. Our study was initiated to determine if songbirds were being exposed to aflatoxin-contaminated feed throughout Texas. Bags of wild bird seed (n = 142) were purchased from grain cooperatives, grocery stores, and pet shops located in the panhandle, central, south, east, and west regions of Texas during spring and summer 1999. Aflatoxin concentrations in bird seed ranged from non-detectable to 2,780 μg/kg. Overall, 17% of samples had aflatoxin concentrations greater than 100 μg/kg, of which 83% contained corn as an ingredient. Retail establishment effects were noted in the southern and western regions of Texas, with average concentrations of aflatoxin greater from bags of bird seed purchased from grain cooperatives, followed by pet shops, then grocery stores. Regional differences in aflatoxin levels were not apparent from bags of seed purchased at pet shops; however, regional differences were noted in aflatoxin levels from seeds obtained at grocery stores and grain cooperatives. Average aflatoxin concentration from seed purchased at grocery stores was greatest in the panhandle region, followed by the remaining regions. Within grain cooperatives, the panhandle, south, and west regions of Texas exhibited higher levels of aflatoxin-contaminated bird seed than cooperatives within the east and central regions of Texas. Granivorous songbirds in Tex-as are exposed to aflatoxins at backyard feeders, which may be a significant morbidity and mortality factor.

Parasitism of crocodilians by ticks has rarely been reported, and to our knowledge only seven published accounts exist. On 3 July 1999, we collected four ticks from a subadult Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii) captured in northern Belize. These were identified as Amblyomma dissimile (one female), and Am-blyomma sp. (two nymphs, one larva). The crocodile was captured on land approximately 100 m from water, and all four ticks were attached to loose skin on the lateral surface of the tail. Crocodilians are most susceptible to terrestrial ectoparasites, including ticks, during overland movements. However, most such movements occur in response to drought, when tick questing activity is suppressed, which likely accounts for the small numbers of tick specimens recorded from crocodilians and the absence of any noticeable impact of parasitism on host fitness.

Forty-seven wild boars (Sus scrofa) collected from two areas in the province of Valencia (eastern Spain) were examined for digestive and respiratory helminth parasites. Helminth species and their prevalence were Taenia hydatigena cysticercus (19%), Ascarops strongylina (87%), Physocephalus sexalatus (6%), Ascaris suum (2%), Metastrongylus spp. (85%), Capillaria sp. (2%) and Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus (21%). Trichinella spp. were not found. Physocephalus sexalatus, A. suum, Capillaria sp. and M. hirudinaceus were found only in wild boars collected from one area (National Hunting Reserve of Cortes de Pallás). Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus did not occur in hogs < 1-yr-old, whereas the intensity of Metastrongylus spp. infection was the greatest in this age group.