From 2000 to 2004, over 10,000 seabirds, primarily Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus), died from an undetermined cause in the Blekinge archipelago in southeastern Sweden. In June 2004, 24 affected Herring Gulls were examined clinically, killed humanely, and 23 were examined by necropsy. Seven and 10 unaffected Herring Gulls collected from a local landfill site and from Iceland, respectively, served as controls. All affected birds showed similar neurologic signs, ranging from mild incoordination and weakness to severe flaccid paralysis of legs and wings, but generally were alert and responsive. All affected gulls were in normal nutritional condition, but were dehydrated and had empty stomachs. No gross or microscopic lesions, and no bacterial or viral pathogens were identified. Type C botulinum toxin was detected in the sera of 11 of 16 (69%) affected gulls by mouse inoculation. Type C botulism was the proximate cause of disease in 2004. Sera from 31% of birds tested from outbreaks in 2000 to 2003 also had detectable type C botulinum toxin by mouse inoculation. No large-scale botulism outbreak has been documented previously in this area. The source of toxin, initiating conditions, and thus, the ultimate cause of this outbreak are not known. This epidemic might signal environmental change in the Baltic Sea.

Avian vacuolar myelinopathy (AVM) is a neurologic disease affecting Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), American Coots (Fulica americana), and other birds in the southeastern United States. The cause of the disease has not yet been determined, although it is generally thought to be a natural toxin. Previous studies have linked AVM to aquatic vegetation, and the current working hypothesis is that a species of cyanobacteria growing epiphytically on that vegetation is producing a toxin that causes AVM. Surveys of epiphytic communities have identified a novel species of cyanobacteria in the order Stigonematales as the most likely suspect. The purpose of this study was to further examine the relationship between the suspect Stigonematales species and induction of AVM, by using animal feeding trials. Adult Mallards and domestic chickens were fed aquatic vegetation from two study sites containing the suspect cyanobacterial epiphyte, as well as a control site that did not contain the Stigonematales species. Two trials were conducted. The first trial used vegetation collected during mid-October 2003, and the second trial used vegetation collected during November and December 2003. Neither treatment nor control birds in the first trial developed AVM lesions. Ten of 12 treatment Mallards in the second trial were diagnosed with AVM, and control birds were not affected. This study provides further evidence that the novel Stigonematales species may be involved with AVM induction, or at the least it is a good predictor of AVM toxin presence in a system. The results also demonstrate the seasonal nature of AVM events.

Eight atypical Mannheimia isolates were isolated from lesions in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Traditional classification based on morphologic and physiologic traits showed that they belong to a distinct biogroup (taxon) within genus Mannheimia. Extensive phenotypic characterization suggested that the isolates should be classified as M. granulomatis, although the presence of distinct traits justified their classification into a separate biogroup within this species. Phylogenetic analyses based on 16S rRNA sequences from two roe deer isolates and 41 other Mannheimia strains supported that the roe deer isolates form a monophyletic group within M. granulomatis. The lktA genotype was present in all roe deer isolates based on Southern blot analysis, whereas the corresponding β-hemolytic phenotype was absent in one of these isolates.

Mycobacterium bovis has a wide host range that includes several wildlife species, and this can hamper attempts to eradicate bovine tuberculosis from livestock. The purpose of this study was to determine if common rodent species, namely meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus), house mice (Mus musculus), and Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), that inhabit the bovine tuberculosis endemic area of Michigan, can be experimentally infected with M. bovis. The objectives of the study were: 1) to determine if these rodent species can be infected, and if so, to document attendant pathologic processes/pathogenesis; 2) to detect any fecal shedding of M. bovis; and 3) to evaluate the relative susceptibility of the three species to M. bovis infection. For each species (n=36) there were two treatment (n=12/group) and one or two control groups depending on species (n=6–12/group); the maximum study duration was 60 days. The meadow vole treatments consisted of high dose inocula that were given by oral or intranasal routes, whereas the house mice and Norway rats were given only oral inocula at either a high or low dose. Of the three species, meadow voles were most susceptible to M. bovis infection. Upon intranasal inoculation, all 12 voles were infected as determined by gross and microscopic lesions and culture of M. bovis from tissue and feces. Seven of the 12 meadow voles inoculated orally were infected. House mice also were susceptible; M. bovis was isolated from 14 of 24 animals. Only one Norway rat in the high dose treatment group was positive by culture and this was the only animal from which minimal attendant lesions were observed. Results of this study indicate that meadow voles and house mice can be infected with M. bovis and might serve as spillover hosts. Concerted efforts should, therefore, be made to reduce or eliminate these rodents on premises where M. bovis-infected livestock are present.

Fish serve as intermediate hosts for a number of larval parasites that have the potential of maturing in marine mammals such as Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus). We examined the prevalence of parasites from 229 fish collected between March and July 2002 near two islands used by Steller sea lions in Southeast Alaska and island habitats in the Aleutian Islands. Sea lion populations have remained steady in Southeast Alaska but have been declining over the last 30 yr in the Aleutian Islands. Even though the fish samples near the Southeast Alaska haulouts were composed of numerous small species of fish and the Aleutian Islands catch was dominated by juveniles of commercially harvested species, the parasite fauna was similar at all locations. Eleven of the 20 parasite taxa identified were in their larval stage in the fish hosts, several of which have been described from mammalian final hosts. Four species of parasite were more prevalent in Southeast Alaska fish samples, and seven parasite species, including several larval forms capable of infecting marine mammals, were more prevalent in fish from the Aleutian Islands. Nevertheless, parasites available to Steller sea lions from common fish prey are not likely to be a major factor in the decline of this marine mammal species.

Amblyomma americanum is an aggressive ixodid tick that has been implicated as a vector for several bacterial agents. Among these is Ehrlichia chaffeensis, which causes human monocytic (or monocytotropic) ehrlichiosis. In this study, experimental tick transmission of E. chaffeensis from infected lone star ticks to deer was revisited, and the question of whether it would be possible to re-isolate the organism from deer was asked, because this had not been done previously. Here, we were able to transmit a wild strain of E. chaffeensis from acquisition-fed lone star ticks to white-tailed deer. Ehrlichia chaffeensis was re-isolated from one white-tailed deer on multiple days during the infection and from another deer on one day during the infection. Peak rickettsemias for E. chaffeensis-infected deer were 17 DPI with acquisition-fed ticks and 14 DPI with needle-inoculated deer. This study supports the role of the lone star tick and white-tailed deer as vector and reservoir host for E. chaffeensis, demonstrating culture re-isolation of E. chaffeensis in deer infected by experimental tick transmission for the first time.

Tissue samples from 699 birds from three regions of Asia (Myanmar, India, and South Korea) were screened for evidence of infection by avian parasites in the genera Plasmodium and Haemoproteus. Samples were collected from November 1994 to October 2004. We identified 241 infected birds (34.0%). Base-on-sequence data for the cytochrome b gene from 221 positive samples, 34 distinct lineages of Plasmodium, and 41 of Haemoproteus were detected. Parasite diversity was highest in Myanmar followed by India and South Korea. Parasite prevalence differed among regions but not among host families. There were four lineages of Plasmodium and one of Haemoproteus shared between Myanmar and India and only one lineage of Plasmodium shared between Myanmar and South Korea. No lineages were shared between India and South Korea, although an equal number of distinct lineages were recovered from each region. Migratory birds in South Korea and India originate from two different migratory flyways; therefore cross-transmission of parasite lineages may be less likely. India and Myanmar shared more host species and habitat types compared to South Korea. Comparison between low-elevation habitat in India and Myanmar showed a difference in prevalence of haematozoans.

Although well known as a widespread parasitic disease of columbids and birds of prey, there have been few studies of trichomonosis in populations of wild birds. In Mauritius, trichomonosis has been highlighted as a major threat to an endangered endemic, the Pink Pigeon (Neosoenas [Columba] mayeri). In this study, we examined the role that populations of other columbids in Mauritius might be playing as infectious reservoirs of the causal flagellate protozoan, Trichomonas gallinae. We screened 296 wild individuals of three columbid species (Madagascan Turtle Dove [Streptopelia picturata], Spotted Dove [Streptopelia chinensis], and Zebra Dove [Geopelia striata]) between September 2002 and April 2004. Prevalence varied significantly among species (ranging from 19% in S. chinensis to 59% in G. striata) and between S. picturata sampled from upland and coastal sites; S. picturata from upland sites (>500 m) were significantly less likely to be infected with T. gallinae than those from lowland sites (<50 m; 62% and 27% prevalence, respectively). There was no significant difference in the prevalence of T. gallinae at sites where Pink Pigeons were also present compared to those sampled at sites without Pink Pigeons. We show that T. gallinae infection prevalence is higher at sites and times of warmer temperatures and lower rainfall.

Plague is an enzootic disease in the western United States, even though long-term persistent infections do not seem to occur. Enzootic persistence may occur as a function of dynamic interactions between flea vectors and transiently infected hosts, but the specific levels of vector competence, host competence, and transmission and recovery rates that would promote persistence and emergence among wild hosts and vectors are not known. We developed a mathematical model of enzootic plague in the western United States and implemented the model with the following objectives: 1) to use matrix manipulation within a classic susceptible→infective→resistant→susceptible (SIRS) model framework to describe transmission of the plague bacterium Yersinia pestis among rodents and fleas in California, 2) to perform sensitivity analysis with model parameters and variables to indicate which values tended to dominate model output, and 3) to determine whether enzootic maintenance would be predicted with realistic parameter values obtained from the literature for Y. pestis in California rodents and fleas. The model PlagueSIRS was implemented in discrete time as a computer simulation incorporating environmental stochasticity and seasonality, by using matrix functions in the computer language R, allowing any number of rodent and flea species to interact through parasitism and disease transmission. Sensitivity analysis indicated that the model was sensitive to flea attack rate, host recovery rate, and rodent host carrying capacity but relatively insensitive to changes in the duration of latent infection in the flea, host and vector competence, flea recovery from infection, and host mortality attributable to plague. Realistic parameters and variable values did allow for the model to predict enzootic plague in some combinations, specifically when rodent species that were susceptible to infection but resistant to morbidity were parasitized by multiple poorly competent flea species, including some that were present year-round. This model could be extended to similar vectorborne disease systems and could be used iteratively with data collection in sylvatic plague studies to better understand plague persistence and emergence in nature.

Swift foxes (Vulpes velox) have been proposed as potential carriers of fleas infected with the bacterium Yersinia pestis between areas of epizootics in black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). We examined antibody prevalence rates of a population of swift foxes in Colorado, USA, and used polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays to examine their flea biota for evidence of Y. pestis. Fifteen of 61 (24%) captured foxes were seropositive, and antibody prevalence was spatially correlated with epizootic plague activity in prairie dog colonies in the year of, and previous to, the study. Foxes commonly harbored the flea Pulex simulans, though none of the fleas was positive for Y. pestis.

Elk (Cervus elaphus manitobensis) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the Riding Mountain National Park (RMNP) region of southwestern Manitoba have been identified as a likely wildlife reservoir of Mycobacterium bovis, the causative agent of bovine mycobacteriosis in livestock. The feasibility of using coyotes (Canis latrans) collected from trappers as a sentinel species was investigated. Retropharyngeal, mesenteric, and colonic lymph nodes and tonsils collected at necropsy from 82 coyotes were examined by bacterial culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and acid-fast histopathology. Mycobacterium bovis was not identified in any animal by culture or PCR although Mycobacterium avium species were isolated. A single acid-fast organism was identified on histopathologic examination of one animal. Based on the methods used in this study, trapper-caught coyotes do not appear to be a sensitive sentinel species of M. bovis infection in cervids in and around RMNP.

The rapid geographic spread of West Nile virus (family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus, WNV) across the United States has stimulated interest in comparative host infection studies to delineate competent avian hosts critical for viral amplification. We compared the host competence of four taxonomically related blackbird species (Icteridae) after experimental infection with WNV and with two endemic, mosquito-borne encephalitis viruses, western equine encephalomyelitis virus (family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus, WEEV), and St. Louis encephalitis virus (family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus, SLEV). We predicted differences in disease resistance among the blackbird species based on differences in life history, because they differ in geographic range and life history traits that include mating and breeding systems. Differences were observed among the response of these hosts to all three viruses. Red-winged Blackbirds were more susceptible to SLEV than Brewer's Blackbirds, whereas Brewer's Blackbirds were more susceptible to WEEV than Red-winged Blackbirds. In response to WNV infection, cowbirds showed the lowest mean viremias, cleared their infections faster, and showed lower antibody levels than concurrently infected species. Brown-headed Cowbirds also exhibited significantly lower viremia responses after infection with SLEV and WEEV as well as coinfection with WEEV and WNV than concurrently infected icterids. We concluded that cowbirds may be more resistant to infection to both native and introduced viruses because they experience heightened exposure to a variety of pathogens of parenting birds during the course of their parasitic life style.

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, an aquatic fungus, has been linked to recent amphibian population declines. Few surveys have assessed B. dendrobatidis infections in areas where the disease is suggested to be less virulent and population declines have not been observed, such as southeastern North America. Although adult Rana catesbeiana and Rana sphenocephala from the Savannah River Site, South Carolina collected in 1979 and 1982 were identified as having B. dendrobatidis, it is unknown whether the fungus is currently present at the site or if susceptibility to infection varies among species or wetlands with different histories of environmental contamination. From 15 May through 15 August 2004, we collected R. catesbeiana and R. sphenocephala tadpoles from three wetlands with differing contamination histories on the Savannah River Site, South Carolina. We found B. dendrobatidis in only one of the wetlands we surveyed. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection was identified in 64% of the R. catesbeiana tadpoles sampled and histologically assessed (n=50) from a wetland contaminated with mercury, copper, and zinc. No R. sphenocephala tadpoles from this site (n=50) were infected. In combination with a recently published report, our data suggest that B. dendrobatidis has been present at the Savannah River Site for over 25 yr but has not caused any apparent population declines. This time period is similar to the known presence of 30 yr of B. dendrobatidis in northeastern North America. Our data suggest that R. sphenocephala larvae might be resistant to infection, even when occupying the same wetland as the infected R. catesbeiana. Our survey did not clarify the effects of environmental contamination on infection severity, but our study stresses the importance of additional field surveys to document how this pathogen is affecting amphibians globally.

As part of a health survey of New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) on Enderby Island, Auckland Islands (50°30′S, 166°17′E), neonatal mortality was closely monitored at the Sandy Bay colony for seven consecutive years. Throughout the breeding seasons 1998–99 to 2004–05, more than 400 postmortem examinations were performed on pups found dead at this site. The primary causes of death were categorized as trauma (35%), bacterial infections (24%), hookworm infection (13%), starvation (13%), and stillbirth (4%). For most pups, more than one diagnosis was recorded. Every year, two distinct peaks of trauma were observed: the first associated with mature bulls fighting within the harem and the second with subadult males abducting pups. In 2001–02 and 2002–03, epidemics caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae increased mortality by three times the mean in nonepidemic years (10.2%). The increased mortality was attributed directly to acute suppurative infection due to the bacterium and also to an increase in traumatic deaths of debilitated pups. Parasitic infection with the hookworm Uncinaria spp. was a common finding in all pups older than three weeks of age and debilitation by the parasite may have contributed to increased susceptibility to other pathogens such as Klebsiella sp. or Salmonella sp. This study provides valuable quantitative data on the natural causes of neonatal mortality in New Zealand sea lions that can be used in demographic models for management of threatened species.

Regional extirpations of pikas (Ochatona princeps) within the last few decades have been attributed to global warming. Other recent global alterations such as increased nitrogen (N) deposition and associated selenium (Se) deficiency may further stress pika populations. In 2003 and 2004, we live-trapped pikas from three populations in Wyoming and measured Se values in their hair. We also sampled hair and liver from museum specimens collected throughout the Northern Rocky Mountains in 1987 and 1988. Our results suggest that liver and hair values were related, and that pika hair reflected the Se concentrations of the geologic parent materials. We determined that animals residing in several remote areas in the Rocky Mountain region could be Se deficient and that increase in N deposition correlated with an increase rather than a decrease in Se values in pika hair. In addition, we found no relation between Se contents in hair and body condition index, suggesting that low Se levels may not have negative effects on individual pikas. Whether Se levels influence reproductive success of pikas is unknown and should be the focus of future studies.

Within the domestic swine industry there is growing trepidation about the role feral swine (Sus scrofa) play in the maintenance and transmission of important swine diseases. Innovative disease management tools for feral swine are needed. We used field trials conducted in southern Texas from February to March 2006 to compare species-specific visitation and removal rates of fish-flavored and vegetable-flavored baits with and without commercially available raccoon (Procyon lotor) repellent (trial 1) and removal rates of baits deployed in a systematic and cluster arrangement (trial 2). During trial 1, 1) cumulative bait removal rates after four nights ranged from 93% to 98%; 2) bait removal rates by feral swine, raccoons, and collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu) did not differ by treatment; and 3) coyotes (Canis latrans) removed more fish-flavored baits without raccoon repellent and white-tailed deer removed more vegetable-flavored baits without raccoon repellent than expected. During trial 2, feral swine removed fish-flavored baits distributed in a cluster arrangement (eight baits within 5 m²) at a rate greater than expected. Our observed bait removal rates illustrate bait attractiveness to feral swine. However, the diverse assemblage of omnivores in the United States compared with Australia where the baits were manufactured adds complexity to the development of a feral swine-specific baiting system for pharmaceutical delivery.

The common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) is indeed a common marsupial in major cities of Australia. This species is known to be susceptible to leptospirosis and often lives in close contact with humans, raising concerns about the potential for transmission of this disease in urban areas. A total of 192 brushtail possum blood samples were collected from 136 individuals in suburban areas of metropolitan Sydney from November 2002 to November 2004. Sera were screened against a reference panel of 21 Leptospira spp. using the microscopic agglutination test. Leptospiral antibodies were detected in 9.6% (13/136) of tested brushtail possums and represented two serovars; antibodies to Leptospira interrogans serovar Hardjo were most frequently identified (11/136). A representative of the exotic serogroup Ballum, most likely serovar Arborea, was found in two of 136 brushtail possums. Exposure to leptospirosis seemed to be associated with age, as older animals had a higher incidence, but there was no distinction in relation to gender. Antibody prevalence varied between the different sampling sites and seropositive animals were clustered and restricted to a few sites. These data support the possible role of brushtail possums as a maintenance host for Leptospira spp. in urban environments and also identified them as a previously unknown and potential source of serovar Arborea.

During February– April 2004, an estimated 400–500 free-ranging elk (Cervus elaphus) developed paresis, became recumbent, and died or were euthanized in the Red Rim Wildlife Habitat Management Area (RRWHMA), Wyoming, USA. Elk were found in sternal recumbency, alert and responsive, but unable to rise. Their condition progressed to lateral recumbency followed by dehydration, obtundation, and death. Gross lesions were limited to degenerative myopathy, with pallor and streaking in skeletal muscles. Microscopically, affected muscles had degenerative lesions of varying duration, severity, and distribution, some with early mineralization and attempts at regeneration. Diagnostic testing ruled out common infectious, inflammatory, toxic, and traumatic causes. Tumbleweed shield lichen (Xanthoparmelia chlorochroa) was found in the area and in the rumen of several elk. This lichen was collected and fed to three captive elk. Two of these elk exhibited signs of ataxia, which rapidly progressed to weakness and recumbency after 7 and 10 days on this diet, respectively, and a degenerative myopathy, consistent with lesions observed in the elk affected at RRWHMA, was observed. All remaining elk migrated from the RRWHMA during the spring and no subsequent losses have been documented.

The suitability of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) as hosts for the cattle ticks Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus and Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus, has been well documented. These ticks have a wide host range, and both transmit Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina, the agents responsible for bovine babesiosis. Although this disease and its vectors have been eradicated from the United States and some states in northern Mexico, it still is a problem in other Mexican states. It is not known if wild cervids like white-tailed deer can act as reservoirs for bovine babesiosis. The purpose of this study was to determine if B. bovis and B. bigemina or antibodies against them occur in white-tailed deer in the states of Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas, Mexico. Twenty blood samples from white-tailed deer from two ranches were collected and tested with a nested polymerase chain reaction (nested PCR) and indirect immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) for B. bovis and B. bigemina. Eleven samples were positive for B. bigemina and four for B. bovis by nested PCR; amplicon sequences were identical to those reported in GenBank for B. bovis (Rap 1) and B. bigemina. Results of the IFA test showed the presence of specific antibodies in serum samples. This is the first report of the presence of B. bovis and B. bigemina in white-tailed deer using these techniques and underscores the importance of cervids as possible reservoirs for bovine babesiosis.

Thelazia callipaeda (Spirurida, Thelaziidae) infects the eyes of humans and rabbits as well of domestic and wild carnivores (i.e., dogs, cats, and foxes). The first three cases of infection by T. callipaeda eyeworms in wolves (Canis lupus) are here described with up to 96 nematodes collected from a single animal. The host competence of wolf was demonstrated by the retrieval of adult worms in the eyes of all examined animals. All nematodes collected were evaluated by morphologic and molecular techniques. Sequence analysis of the partial mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene (cox1) confirmed that only one haplotype of T. callipaeda was present. The competence of wolves as a definitive host for T. callipaeda is discussed in view of the relevance of wild fauna in maintaining and spreading eyeworm infection in humans and domestic animals.

Sarcoptes scabiei was detected for the first time in skin scrapings, hair pluckings, and histologic sections from a blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) from the Shimshali Pamir in the Karakorum range of the western Himalaya in Pakistan (36°28′N, 75°36′E). Local reports suggest many hundred animals have been affected by a severe skin disease over a 10-yr period, but the shy nature of this species and the extreme climate that they inhabit meant only a single affected animal was available for detailed evaluation. The severe skin lesions were confined to the forelegs and brisket, and many Sarcoptes scabiei mites were present in all the samples examined. Histologic preparations of the skin showed hyperkeratotic and parakeratotic hyperkeratosis of the epidermis with a severe exudative dermatosis with many polymorphonuclear neutrophils and gram-positive cocci, yet no eosinophils. These findings might suggest the lack of an appropriate immune response to the parasite or other coping strategies because there has been no abatement of the clinical signs in affected animals over several years. Treatment options are limited due to the behavior of the species and its habitat. The blue sheep is a primary source of prey for the endangered snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and continued depletion could have serious consequences for the survival of the latter.

Skin, lymph node (popliteal), and bone marrow samples were collected from 50 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from May 2004 to May 2005 in southern Italy. Samples were tested for Leishmania infantum by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The parasite was detected by PCR from 20 of 50 (40%) fox carcasses. All 20 positive cases were PCR-positive from lymph node and bone marrow samples, whereas 17 of 20 positive cases were PCR-positive from skin samples. Infection status was not related to age or sex. This is the first report of leishmaniasis in red foxes in Italy based on PCR results, and these results reinforce the assumption that this wild canid can serve as a reservoir for Leishmania.

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the causative agent of chytridiomycosis, was found in 24 of 109 (22%) frogs from Kibale National Park, western Uganda, in January and June 2006, representing the first account of the fungus in six species and in Uganda. The presence of B. dendrobatidis in an equatorial African montane forest raises conservation concerns, considering the high amphibian diversity and endemism characteristic of such areas and their ecological similarity to other regions of the world experiencing anuran declines linked to chytridiomycosis.

Field samples are commonly used to estimate disease prevalence in wild populations. Our confidence in these estimates requires understanding the sensitivity and specificity of the diagnostic tests. We assessed the sensitivity of the most commonly used diagnostic tests for amphibian Ranavirus by infecting salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum; Amphibia, Caudata) with Ambystoma tigrinum virus (ATV) and then sampling euthanized animals (whole animal) and noneuthanized animals (tail clip) at five time intervals after exposure. We used a standard polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocol to screen for ATV. Agreement between test results from whole-animal and tail-clip samples increased with time postexposure. This indicates that the ability to identify infected animals increases following exposure, leading to a more accurate estimate of prevalence in a population. Our results indicate that tail-clip sampling can underestimate the true prevalence of ATV in wild amphibian populations.

Malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) was diagnosed in four free-ranging mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in January and February of 2003. Diagnosis was based on typical histologic lesions of lymphocytic vasculitis and PCR identification of ovine herpesvirus-2 (OHV-2) viral genetic sequences in formalin-fixed tissues. The animals were from the Uncompahgre Plateau of southwestern Colorado. Deer from these herds occasionally resided in close proximity to domestic sheep (Ovis aries), the reservoir host of OHV-2, in agricultural valleys adjacent to their winter range. These cases indicate that fatal OHV-2 associated MCF can occur in free-ranging mule deer exposed to domestic sheep that overlap their range.

West Nile virus (WNV) has been identified in nearly 300 species of wild birds, including raptors, in North America since its introduction in New York City in 1999. American Kestrels (Falco sparverius) are susceptible to WNV infection, and the numbers of these birds have declined along the Atlantic coast in recent years. We examined the population biology and WNV exposure of kestrels breeding in the area surrounding Hawk Mountain Sanctuary in Kempton, Pennsylvania, USA. The reproductive biology of kestrels in this area was studied from 1992 until 2004. The number of kestrels breeding in nestboxes in 2004 was only 44% of the 6-yr mean observed prior to 1999. During the 2004 nesting season (study period: 8 June through 22 July 2004), adult kestrels were trapped near the site of their nestboxes. Blood samples were obtained, and serum antibodies specific to WNV were quantified using a plaque reduction neutralization test. Of 22 birds tested, 21 exhibited serum antibodies to WNV, suggesting that most (95%) of the adult kestrels in the population had been exposed to WNV.

A free-flying Great Egret (Ardea alba) captured in Gifu, central Japan, in May 2006 had a large mass on the right carpal joint. The tumor was diagnosed as chondrosarcoma by histopathologic examination.

Mortality due to infectious diseases is seldom reported in the Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus). A case of necrotic enteritis associated with Clostridium perfringens type A is described in a free-ranging adult male sage-grouse in eastern Oregon. Clostridial enteritis is known to cause outbreaks of mortality in various domestic and wild birds, and should be considered as a potential cause of mortality in sage-grouse populations.

Serum samples from 35 golden jackals (Canis aureus syriacus), eight wolves (Canis lupus), and four red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from various regions of Israel were collected during the years 2001–04 and tested for antibodies to Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) types C and D. Antibodies against BoNT types C and D were detected in 10 (29%) and in 3 (9%) of 35 golden jackals, respectively, using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. This report describes detection of anti BoNT antibodies in wild canids other than coyotes (Canis latrans) for the first time and demonstrates that C. botulinum type C is prevalent in Israel.

Five species of Bolivian carnivores, including nine Geoffroy's cats (Oncifelis geoffroyi), ten ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), one jaguarundi (Herpailurus yaguarondi), nine pampas foxes (Pseudalopex gymnocercus), and five crab-eating foxes (Cerdocyon thous) were sampled between March 2001 and April 2005 and tested for antibodies to common pathogens of domestic carnivores. Carnivores were trapped in three areas: a village, the region between human settlements and a protected area, and within Kaa-Iya National Park, Bolivia. Antibodies to canine distemper virus were detected in ocelots and pampas foxes. Antibodies to canine parvovirus were detected in pampas foxes and crab-eating foxes. Geoffroy's cats and all of the ocelots tested positive for antibodies to feline calicivirus (FCV), while fewer than half of Geoffroy's cats and no ocelots had antibodies to feline panleukopenia (FPV). These results confirm that these species of Bolivian carnivores are not naïve to common pathogens of domestic carnivores, and seropositive animals were found in villages as well as in the national park.