The relationship between end-tidal partial pressure of carbon dioxide (P_ETCO₂), arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (P_aCO₂), and blood pH in isoflurane-anesthetized raptors was evaluated. P_aCO₂ and pH were determined in serial arterial samples from isoflurane anesthetized birds and compared with concurrent end-tidal partial pressure of carbon dioxide measured with a Microstream sidestream capnograph. Forty-eight paired samples, taken from 11 birds of prey (weighing 416–2,062 g), were used to determine correlations coefficients between P_aCO₂ and P_ETCO₂, and between P_ETCO₂ and pH. Limits of agreement between P_aCO₂ and P_ETCO₂ also were calculated. Strong correlations were observed between P_aCO₂ and P_ETCO₂ (r = 0.94; P < 0.0001) as well as between P_ETCO₂ and pH (r = −0.90; P < 0.0001). However, the level of agreement between P_aCO₂ and P_ETCO₂ varied considerably. Low values of P_ETCO₂, ranging from 18 to 29 mm Hg, exceeded the concomitantly measured values of P_aCO₂ by an average of 6.0 mm Hg (6.0 ± 1.9 mm Hg; mean ± SD). Conversely, high values of P_ETCO₂, ranging from 50 to 63 mm Hg, were on average 7.6 mm Hg (7.6 ± 9.8 mm Hg) lower than values of P_aCO₂. In the 30 to 49 mm Hg range for P_ETCO₂, the difference between P_ETCO₂ and P_aCO₂ was on average 1.0 mm Hg (1.0 ± 8.5 mm Hg). These results suggest that the capnograph used provided a sufficiently accurate estimation of arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide for birds weighing >400 g and receiving manual positive ventilation with a Bain system. In our study, the linear relationship observed between the pH and the end-tidal partial pressure of carbon dioxide suggested that the monitoring of end-tidal partial pressure of carbon dioxide also can be useful to prevent respiratory acidosis.

The phylogenetic order Squamata has many representatives that could benefit from the use of semen preservation as a tool for assisting conservation. To date, few studies have been made evaluating the potential for collecting and preserving semen from snakes. The objectives of this study were to characterize semen parameters of the corn snake (Elaphe guttata), including appearance, volume, concentration, sperm motility, and sperm morphology, and to determine the longevity of corn snake sperm motility stored at 4°C. Single semen samples were collected from 22 adult corn snakes. The appearance of the corn snake semen was generally cloudy, and the color was white to tan. Corn snake spermatozoa initially exhibited a median motility of 92.5%. Corn snakes were found to produce small-volume ejaculates (median 0.01 ml). However, the overall concentration of the snake ejaculate was high (x̄ = 852 × 10⁶ ± 585 × 10⁶ spermatozoa/ml). Morphologically, a mean of 75.7 ± 9.3% of the sperm cells in an ejaculate were normal. Snake ejaculate with a white appearance had significantly higher sperm concentrations (x̄ = 1,859 × 10⁶ ± 1,008 × 10⁶ sperm cells/ml; F = 15.74, P = 0.001) than tan ejaculates (x̄ = 601 × 10⁶ ± 439 × 10⁶ sperm cells/ml). Sperm motility decreased significantly in samples that were stored at 4°C for greater than 48 hr in a refrigerator or Equitainer I. This is the first study to characterize semen volume, appearance, and concentration; sperm motility; and sperm morphology in captive corn snakes. The information derived from this study can be used to develop a model for a collection, cooled storage, and shipping program for semen from endangered or threatened captive and wild snakes.

Low egg fertility and hatchability is a common problem in captive populations of rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes chrysocome chrysocome). These conditions make sustaining a captive population challenging. A method for collecting and evaluating semen from rockhopper penguins was developed to assist in the evaluation of low egg fertility found in one captive population. Six adult male rockhopper penguins were conditioned to allow semen collection once a week from the start of breeding season until ejaculates no longer contained sperm. A total of 59 ejaculates was collected between 17 September and 31 December 2004. Forty-five of these samples were evaluated for volume, pH, sperm concentration, and sperm quality (motility, viability, and morphology). There was a large variation between individuals and between collections for each individual. The mean motility was 34.5% (±22%). Mean volume of ejaculate was 0.23 ml (±.31 ml). Mean concentration was 16.9 × 10⁶ sperm/ml (±48.7 × 10⁶ sperm/ml). Mean number of sperm per collection was 1.7 × 10⁶ (±4.2 × 10⁶). Mean percentage of living sperm was 82.9% (±18.1%). Mean percentage of sperm with normal morphology was 82.1% (±18.8%). Mean pH was 6.47 (±0.49). During this season, only one of these males paired with a female. The pair produced one fertile egg, but the embryo died early in incubation. Male rockhopper penguins had low sperm concentration and low motility indicating that low male fertility may be contributing to the poor egg fertility rate. This work represents the first step in an ongoing study to improve captive breeding of rockhopper penguins.

In urban environments, raccoons (Procyon lotor) may act as reservoirs for an array of pathogenic organisms, presenting spillover risks for human, domestic animal, and captive (zoo) animal populations. Over 5 yr, 159 raccoons from a high-density raccoon population in St. Louis, Missouri (USA), were surveyed for exposure to canine distemper virus (CDV), canine adenovirus 1 (CAV-1); feline parvovirus (FPV; =feline panleukopenia), and several serovars of Leptospira interrogans. Exposure to each of the viruses and two Leptospira serovars (grippotyphosa and icterohemorrhagiae) was detected (prevalence of CDV = 54.1%; FPV = 49.7%; CAV-1 = 6.9%; L. interrogans icterohemorrhagiae = 8.9%; L. interrogans grippotyphosa = 6.3%). Eighty percent of raccoons showed evidence of exposure to at least one of the five primary pathogens, and 39% were positive for multiple species. Among the viruses, there was a significant co-occurrence of CDV and CAV-1. Longitudinal data on a subset of animals revealed that among individuals who were diagnosed as seropositive on first capture, 33–100% became seronegative for the pathogen of interest when reexamined at a later date. Thus, free-ranging urban raccoons have been exposed to multiple infectious agents, some of which may pose risks to humans and to nonvaccinated domestic and captive animal populations.

Numerous cases of Gongylonema spp. infection with associated pathological lesions and clinical signs were identified in a collection of Goeldi's monkeys (Callimico goeldii) (GMs) at a zoological park during a 3-yr period. An increase in the incidence of clinical signs in the GMs and other callitrichid species prompted an investigation to determine the prevalence of infection within the collection and evaluate treatment protocols. Twenty-one callitrichids [nine GMs, four golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia), six cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus), and two golden-headed lion tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelas)] were included in this study. Many of the animals had been positively diagnosed on past examinations. Repeated cytological evaluations of scrapings taken from the mucosa of the tongue were performed to diagnose infection. The animals were randomly divided into two groups and treated with either ivermectin (290 μg/kg p.o., q7 days for four doses) or mebendazole (70 mg/kg p.o. q24 hr for three doses). Follow-up scrapings were performed on all animals at days 35, 64, and 156. Numerous animals displayed clinical signs (facial pruritis, inflammation, and ptyalism) before and throughout the investigation; however, Gongylonema spp. infections were only confirmed by tongue scrapings in two animals. Fecal floatation by using a sodium nitrate solution for recovery of spirurid eggs also was performed, but it yielded no positive results. The low number of confirmed cases precluded comparative evaluation of the efficacy of the anthelmintic treatment protocols. However, both regimes seemed subjectively similar in decreasing clinical signs and were safe with no adverse effects. Diagnosis of Gongylonema spp. infection is challenging, even when severe clinical signs are present. This investigation further demonstrates the lack of a reliable ante-mortem test for the parasite and underscores the importance of treatment based on clinical signs. Until a more sensitive test is available, further comparison studies on treatment regimes will be difficult and likely unrewarding.

This study describes clinical, histologic, immunohistochemical and electron microscopic features of amyloid A amyloidosis occurring in black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) from eight U.S. zoological institutions. Ferrets had nonregenerative anemia, serum chemistries consistent with chronic renal disease, and proteinuria. Amyloid was present in a variety of tissues, but it was most severe in renal glomeruli and associated with tubular protein loss and emaciation. Congo red/potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) and immunohistochemical stains revealed that the amyloid was of the AA type. Concurrent diseases and genetic predisposition were considered the most important contributing factors to development of amyloidosis. Analysis of the genetic tree did not reveal convincing evidence of a common ancestor in the affected ferrets, but a genetic predisposition is likely because all the captive black-footed ferrets are related.

The future of the endangered red panda (Ailurus fulgens) depends in part on the development of protective measures against infectious diseases. The present study is a first step toward improved understanding of infectious diseases in the species' home regions. Serum samples obtained from 73 red pandas in 10 captive facilities in southwest, east, and northeast China from October to December 2004 were tested for antibodies against nine common infectious pathogens of carnivores. Antibody titers against canine distemper virus (CDV), canine parvovirus (CPV), and canine adenovirus (CAV) in the three facilities in which red pandas were vaccinated were highly variable. The CAV titer in one vaccinated red panda was high enough to suggest infection with the field virus following vaccination. Together with anecdotal reports of vaccine-associated morbidity and mortality, our results suggest that the Chinese vaccine is not suitable for this species. In the seven unvaccinated groups, CDV titers were low and occurred in 20–100% of the animals; antibody titers against CPV were found in seven of eight areas. Only one of 61 and two of 61 unvaccinated red pandas had CAV and canine coronavirus titers, respectively, and these titers were all low. Positive titers to Toxoplasma gondii were found in four locations (33–94% seropositive); the titers in 52% of seropositive individuals were of a magnitude consistent with active disease in other species (1:1,024 to ≥1:4,096). One red panda in each of three locations was seropositive for Neospora caninum. Antibodies against canine herpesvirus and Brucella canis were not detected in any of the samples. Only one of the 73 red pandas had a weak positive influenza A titer. The results of this study emphasize the need for research on and protection against infectious diseases of red pandas and other endangered species in China.

Parasitism is common in wild and captive amphibians; however, pharmacologic data are lacking for anthelmintic drugs. This study was developed to determine the plasma pharmacokinetics of selamectin after topical administration in bullfrogs. Thirty-two adult American bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) were randomly assigned into eight groups of four with each group representing a different collection time point. Seven groups received selamectin (6 mg/ kg) topically and the remaining group served as the untreated control group. One group of frogs was euthanized and blood samples immediately collected on days 0 (control), 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30. Plasma was analyzed for selamectin using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Individual samples were analyzed, then data were reported as the mean of the four frogs at each time point. A histologic evaluation of the lung, liver, kidney, and skin tissues was performed and none of the frogs showed histologic evidence of toxicity due to selamectin administration. The mean peak plasma concentration was 162.5 ± 42.3 ng/ml, area under the curve was 2,856 ng day/ml, mean residence time was 12.2 days, and disappearance half-life was 1.87 days. Based on the plasma pharmacokinetics, bullfrogs appear to absorb selamectin very efficiently, concentrations reach high levels in the plasma, and there were no apparent histologic effects from single dose administration.

Poor calf production and ill thrift in 3–4 mo olds are common limiting problems in raising and maintaining captive muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus). Acute onset of a rapidly progressing enteritis and septicemia in neonatal calves (2–7 days of age) caused by Escherichia coli not normally considered pathogenic in domestic animals is a serious problem in many captive muskoxen facilities. Serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels, total protein, albumin, and globulin levels in captive periparturient muskox females and their neonatal calves were compared with levels found in other species in which these parameters have been well described. Results showed that all females in the study had IgG present in their serum (mean = 1,232.14 mg/dl, SD = 178.34 mg/dl, as measured via radial immunodiffusion). Calves were probably born agammaglobulinemic or hypogammaglobulinemic. IgG levels quickly rose in calves after initial colostrum intake to levels similar to those seen in other domestic ruminants. Our results suggest that passive transfer of immunity in muskoxen is similar to what is reported in domestic livestock and that reference ranges from domestic cattle may be used to assist interpretation of serum IgG levels in muskoxen. In addition, the positive relationship between serum protein and globulin levels with serum IgG levels is similar to that reported for Holstein cattle and thus provides a useful indicator of passive transfer in muskoxen.

Medical records from 111 threatened bald eagles (86%, Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and peregrine falcons (14%, Falco peregrinus) admitted to the Wildlife Center of Virginia from 1993 to 2003 were reviewed to identify submitters, causes of morbidity and mortality, and final disposition. Half of all patients admitted were submitted by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries personnel. Trauma was the most common reason for presentation in bald eagles (70%) and peregrine falcons (81%). Additional causes of morbidity and mortality in bald eagles included toxicoses (10%), infectious diseases (8%), and orphaned young (1%). Neoplasia was confirmed in two trauma cases, suggesting underlying disease might have increased susceptibility to acute traumatic injuries. Peregrine falcons were also admitted for infectious disease (19%). The most frequent infectious disease for both species was West Nile virus. Thirty-nine percent of patients were released back into the wild, 28% were euthanized, 20% died, and 13% were placed in captivity. Postrelease monitoring that would determine whether rehabilitated animals survived to contribute to threatened populations was not performed in this study.

Complete medical evaluations were performed on 25 wild black lemurs (Eulemur macaco macaco) in Lokobe Reserve, northwestern Madagascar. Each animal received a complete physical examination. Weight, body temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate were recorded. Blood samples were collected for complete blood cell count, differential white blood cell count, hemoparasite examination, serum biochemical profile, fat-soluble vitamin analysis, trace mineral analysis, and Toxoplasma gondii and viral serology. Fecal samples were collected for bacterial culture and endoparasite examination. Ectoparasites were collected and identified. Values were compared to established ranges from captive black lemurs in North American zoos. Significant differences exist between captive and wild animals for total white blood cell count, segmented neutrophil count, band neutrophil count, eosinophil count, monocyte count, and basophil count, and for serum biochemistry values of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, total bilirubin, serum alkaline phosphatase, total protein, creatinine, phosphorus, calcium, sodium, potassium, and creatine phosphokinase. One animal had a positive Toxoplasma titer. Detected endoparasites were identified as Lemuricola and Callistroura. Two ectoparasite mites were identified, one within the Psoroptes genus and one within the Laelapidae family. Enteric bacterial flora included Enterococcus sp., Staphylococcus sp., Escherichia coli, Streptococcus sp., Klebsiella ozaenae and Bacillus cereus.

Hematologic characteristics and plasma chemistry values of juvenile loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) from the ages of 1 mo to 3 yr were obtained to establish baseline values. Five clinically normal loggerhead turtles were selected from the same clutch and raised in an indoor artificial nesting beach. Blood samples were successively collected and examined for various blood characteristics for a maximum total of 15 times. Hematologic characteristics, including packed cell volume, white blood cell counts, and white blood cell differentials; and plasma chemistry values, including total bilirubin, total protein, albumin, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, glutamic pyruvic transaminase, γ-glutamic transpeptidase, creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, uric acid, alkaline phosphatase, amylase, triglyceride, total cholesterol, ionized sodium, ionized potassium and ionized chlorine, were measured. These results were used to establish a hematology and blood chemistry baseline for captive juvenile loggerhead turtles and will aid in their medical management.

Three cases of metabolic bone disease (MBD) were identified in juvenile Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) in a zoological collection. Diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment were challenging, in part because radiographs and traditional serum biochemistries did not provide adequate information to guide appropriate clinical management. Normal values for ionized calcium (iCa), 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ [25-(OH) D₃], and parathyroid hormone (PTH) have not been reported for any species in the order Sphenisciformes. This study aimed to establish reference ranges for these parameters to provide a method for assessing clinical cases of MBD and other disease processes. iCa was measured in 33 healthy adult birds from two zoological collections by using a portable clinical analyzer. iCa also was measured from 14 of these birds at a commercial laboratory. Mean and standard deviation were determined to be 1.21 ± 0.09 and 1.29 ± 0.10 mmol/L, respectively. Limited data exist on iCa in avian species, but these results are consistent with other reports and provide a useful clinical parameter. Analysis of PTH and 25-(OH) D₃ was performed at a commercial laboratory on samples from 14 healthy adult penguins in one collection. Means and standard deviations for PTH and 25-(OH) D₃ were 0.8 ± 0.3 pmol/L and 3.7 ± 2.4 nmol/L, respectively. These results are near the minimal functional detectable limits of the assays; raising uncertainty about the validity and usefulness of currently available PTH and 25-(OH) D₃ tests in this species.

Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) caused by Mycoplasma capricolum subsp.capripneumoniae is a highly contagious and serious respiratory disease of domestic goats, characterized by coughing, severe respiratory distress, and high mortality rates. The lesions at necropsy are mainly a fibrinous pleuropneumonia with increased straw-colored pleural fluid. An outbreak of CCPP in wild goat (Capra aegagrus), Nubian ibex (Capra ibex nubiana), Laristan mouflon (Ovis orientalis laristanica), and gerenuk (Litocranius walleri) occurred at Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation in the State of Qatar. The disease was suspected because of the clinical symptoms and the necropsy findings and was confirmed by the isolation and identification of the causative organism. This new finding indicates that CCPP should be considered a potential threat to wildlife and the conservation of endangered ruminant species, especially in the Middle East, where it is enzootic because of its presence in chronic carriers. Susceptible imported animals should be quarantined and vaccinated. The preferred samples for diagnosis are the pleural fluid, which contains high numbers of Mycoplasma, and sections of hepatized lung, preferably at the interface of normal and diseased tissues. Samples must be shipped to diagnostic laboratories rapidly, and appropriate cool conditions must be maintained during shipping.

The Asiatic or Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus) is an endangered species. In South Asian countries, captive tamed Himalayan bears are commonly used by roving bear-charmers to entertain the people in rural and urban areas. In captivity, this species confronts several psychophysical traumas and communicable diseases, which are prevalent in other domestic species. The present report describes four cases of Trypanosoma evansi infection in live Himalayan charming bears, which originated from the Faisalabad and Jhang districts of Pakistan. The condition was characterized by pyrexia, accelerated pulse, tachypnea, depression, anemic mucous membranes, and ataxia (n = 3). Microscopic examination of peripheral blood films revealed moderate (n = 2) or high (n = 2) numbers of T. evansi. All four bears were treated twice at 3-day intervals with suramin sodium by using almost twice the dosage recommended for common domestic animals (10 mg/kg). The treated bears were found aparasitemic on repeat blood testing on days 5, 7, and 10 post-treatment. No adverse effects were noted and all four cases recovered in 3–7 days after completion of the second round of treatment. One bear died 8 days after the second treatment (day 11). This is the first report of T. evansi in bears.

Mycobacterium szulgai was associated with mortality in two captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana) housed at Lincoln Park Zoo. The first elephant presented with severe, acute lameness of the left rear limb. Despite extensive treatments, the animal collapsed and died 13 mo after initial presentation. Necropsy revealed osteomyelitis with loss of the femoral head and acetabulum and pulmonary granulomas with intralesional M. szulgai. The second elephant collapsed during transport to another institution with no premonitory clinical signs. This animal was euthanized because of prolonged recumbency. Granulomatous pneumonia with intralesional M. szulgai was found at necropsy. Two novel immunoassays performed on banked serum samples detected antibody responses to mycobacterial antigens in both infected elephants. It was not possible to determine when the infection was established or how the elephants were infected. When reviewing the epidemiology of this organism in humans, however, transmission between elephants seemed unlikely because human-to-human transmission of this organism has never been reported and a third elephant in the herd was not affected. In addition to Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, atypical mycobacterial organisms need to be considered potentially pathogenic in elephants.

Amyloidosis is a disease characterized by the tissue deposition of autologous extracellular fibrillar proteins that can result in compression of adjacent tissues. Amyloidosis is well-recognized in a wide variety of animals, including mammals, birds, and reptiles. However, to date, there is only one report of amyloidosis in cetaceans. During 1999 and 2000, among 12 Stejneger's beaked whales (Mesoplodon stejnegeri) that were stranded along the Sea of Japan's coast, amyloidosis was found in two whales (case 1, 498 cm, male; case 2, 520 cm, female). For this study population, the prevalence rate of amyloidosis was approximately 17%. These two animals were considered physically and sexually mature based on body length, external features, gonad characteristics, and skeletal features. Livers were notably swollen, fragile, and pale (brownish yellow) on gross examination. A large deposit of amyloid was found in Disse's spaces along with marked atrophy of the hepatocytes. Numerous granulomas, including many nematodes (Crassicauda sp.), were found along with amyloid deposition in the kidneys. Amyloid was also detected in the heart, spleen, adrenal gland, and pancreas. Amyloid in both cases was identified by typical morphology on H&E and Congo red staining. Electron microscopy displayed a typical network of fine fibrils measuring about 11 nm in diameter. This is the first report of amyloidosis in two Stejneger's beaked whales stranded on the coast of the Sea of Japan.

Nephrolithiasis has rarely been reported in marine mammals. During 2004 and 2005, two cases of nephrolithiasis were diagnosed during routine necropsy examination, one in a northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) and one in a California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). Nephroliths were found throughout both kidneys during necropsy examination, varying in size from 1–10 mm in diameter in the northern elephant seal and from 1–15 mm in diameter in the California sea lion. Necropsy and histopathology revealed nephroliths in association with renal pelvic dilation and pyelonephritis in both animals. In addition, hydronephrosis was noted in the sea lion. Nephroliths were composed of uric acid and ammonium urate in the northern elephant seal and of ammonium urate in the California sea lion. The underlying disease leading to nephrolith formation was not determined; however, it is hypothesized that unknown metabolic derangements due to morphologic or physiologic differences may have played a role. This is the first report of urate nephrolithiasis in the California sea lion and northern elephant seal.

An immature Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii) with a history of seizure-like episodes developed signs of respiratory disease. The initial clinical diagnosis was pneumonia, and antibiotic therapy was started. The animal failed to improve after 14 days of therapy and developed unilateral, bloody nasal discharge. Endoscopic examination and radiography revealed a soft tissue mass in the nasopharynx depressing the soft palate. The tapir died 32 days after initial presentation. Histologic examination of the mass demonstrated a mesenchymal tumor composed of spindle cells with elongate nuclei forming densely packed fascicles. The neoplastic spindle cells showed prominent cross-striations. Immunohistochemistry revealed the cells to be positive for desmin and myoglobin, but negative for smooth muscle actin, confirming diagnosis of rhabdomyosarcoma. Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common nasopharyngeal soft tissue tumor of humans, and it has been reported infrequently in dogs, horses, and pigs. Neoplasia should be a differential diagnosis in cases of unilateral nasal discharge and inspiratory stridor, even in young animals.

The aim of this research was to obtain basic values for the evaluation of thyroid function in nondomestic felids. Serum thyroid hormone concentrations (thyroxine, T4; triiodothyronine, T3) were measured by radioimmunoassay in 145 cats, representing nine species of captive nondomestic felids: jaguar (Panthera onca), n = 49; puma (Puma concolor), n = 10; ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), n = 22; oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus), n = 12; geoffroy (Oncifelis geoffroyi), n = 4; jaguarundi (Herpailurus yaguarondi), n = 8; margay (Leopardus wiedii), n = 7; lion (Panthera leo), n = 26; and tiger (Panthera tigris), n = 7. For each species, mean ± SEM of T3 and T4, respectively, were as follows: jaguar, 0.56 ± 0.03 and 9.7 ± 0.8 ng/ml; puma, 0.67 ± 0.04 and 11.2 ± 1.2 ng/ml; ocelot, 0.48 ± 0.03 and 13.8 ± 1.5 ng/ml; oncilla, 0.43 ± 0.03 and 10.0 ± 1.6 ng/ml; geoffroy, 0.44 ± 0.04 and 8.0 ± 0.16 ng/ml; jaguarundi, 0.7 ± 0.03 and 5.0 ± 1.0 ng/ml; margay, 0.48 ± 0.04 and 12.2 ± 2.3 ng/ml; lion, 0.43 ± 0.02 and 5.7 ± 2.6 ng/ml; and tiger, 0.66 ± 0.03 and 12.6 ± 0.9 ng/ml. Within species, T3 and T4 concentrations did not differ (P > 0.05) between males and females.

A wild-caught subadult eastern yellowbelly racer (Coluber constrictor flaviventris) presented with three raised, circumscribed, freely moveable subcutaneous masses over the dorsal and right epaxial musculature. Microscopic examination and special staining of surgically excised masses were diagnostic for chromatophoroma. No metastases were apparent on whole-body plain film radiographs and computed tomography. Additional excisional biopsies of previously affected sites performed 13 wk later demonstrated normal skin and subcutis. The snake recovered uneventfully and continued to do well 18 mo later. Surgical excision of chromatophoromas remains the treatment of choice in snakes. Subcutaneous masses in snakes should be thoroughly investigated.

An imported 2.5-yr-old female green iguana (Iguana iguana rhinolopa) kept in Greece was presented with a history of anorexia and allotriophagy of 1 mo duration. Upon clinical examination, it was cachectic and had severe abdominal distension and fibrous osteodystrophy. Despite treatment, it died a month later. On necropsy, massive accumulations of threadlike nematode parasites were observed in the large intestine, identified as Ozolaimus megatyphlon, a member of the Oxyuridae family of Pharyngodonidae, a usually nonpathogenic intestinal parasite of iguanas. To the authors' knowledge, its presence has not been reported previously in Europe, although one pathogenic infection has been reported previously in Japan. The animal was presumably infected before importation. Although death was attributed to the heavy parasitic overload, the poor diet and terrarium hygiene, and absence of an anthelminthic regime further contributed to the deterioration of the animal's condition. Recognition of this condition, which may be recently introduced or underdiagnosed, may help improve medical and trade standards concerning this species in practice.

A 10-yr-old binturong (Arctictis binturong) developed an acute onset of hind limb paralysis. Neurological examination revealed sensorimotor paraplegia. Myelography and computed tomography demonstrated a ventrolateral extradural compression of the spinal cord centered over the L3–L4 intervertebral disc space. Spinal decompression was performed via hemilaminectomy and excision of degenerate nucleus pulposus, confirmed by histopathologic examination. The binturong regained slight motor function by day 8 postoperatively but succumbed to pancreatitis 19 days postoperatively.

An approximately 1.5-yr-old free-ranging male Eurasian badger (Meles meles) from the eastern part of Austria had macroscopic and microscopic lesions consistent with canine distemper virus infection, including nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis, interstitial pneumonia with accumulation of macrophages in alveoli that contained intranuclear inclusion bodies, vesicular exanthema of the ventral abdomen, and atrophy of lymphoid tissues. Canine distemper virus-antigen was demonstrable in a variety of organs by using immunohistology. In addition, there were widespread areas of fibrosis in the myocardium that were rich in collagen and paucicellular. Because such changes are comparable with sequelae of the acute cardiac form of canine parvovirus (CPV) infection in dogs, it was speculated that this badger may have experienced CPV myocarditis as a cub but that the corresponding antigen or DNA was not detectable due to resolution of the disease.

An adult female African forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus) of unknown age was presented with signs of recurrent hoof overgrowth, persistent anestrous, obesity, dull hair coat, and decreased activity level. Complete blood counts and serum biochemistry values were unremarkable. Decreased concentrations of total triiodothyronine and total thyroxine were noted compared with values for normal domestic cattle and a healthy African forest buffalo. Treatment with oral levothyroxine increased blood concentrations of total triiodothyronine and total thyroxine, and subsequent improvement in clinical signs included weight loss, hair regrowth, and reproductive cycling.

A male giant anteater (Myrmecophage tridactyla) was treated twice for tongue tip constrictions. Clinical signs were partial anorexia, soft stool, bleeding from the mouth, and intermittent lingual discomfort. In the first presentation, wood fibers constricting the distal part of the tongue were detected by endoscopy and were removed. In the second presentation, bands of collagenous fibers were identified and resected. Dietary elements were responsible for both cases: elongated wood fibers were present in peat, which was included as a supplement to improve stool consistency, and collagenous fibers originated from fascias of lean meat, which served as a protein source in this diet. Preventive measures included sieving of the peat to eliminate long fibers and grinding of the meat, respectively, prior to diet presentation. A homogenous diet, utilizing cellulose rather than peat and dry cat food rather than meat, will avoid tongue tip constriction as described in these cases.

This report describes the gross, histologic, and immunohistochemical features of ovarian dysgerminomas in two adult female mountain chicken frogs (Leptodactylus fallax) from the same zoological institution. One frog was found dead, and the other frog had been ill for several days with a bloated abdomen and lethargy. On necropsy, large, pale multilobulated masses replaced the left ovary in both frogs, and one frog also had numerous smaller nodules scattered throughout the coelomic viscera. Histologically, these masses were composed of sheets and cords of polyhedral discrete germ cells consistent with the diagnosis of dysgerminoma. Neoplastic cells stained positive with immunohistochemistry for Oct4, which has been reported to detect stem cells including germ cells in a variety of species, including humans. Ovarian tumors are uncommonly encountered in both reptiles and amphibians, and this report is the first report of dysgerminoma in any amphibian species.