Veterinarians specializing in nondomestic species are faced with unique challenges regarding research and diagnostic capabilities given the wild and frequently dangerous nature of their patients. Standard diagnostic techniques used in small or large animal practice are not always possible due to anatomical constraints, size, tractability, or the inherent risk of anesthesia in highly valued, rare species. Diagnostic modalities that utilize simple, relatively noninvasive techniques show promise in evaluating nondomestic species and elucidating the pathophysiology behind poorly characterized disease processes in both wild and captive populations. Coagulation profiles, which may include prothrombin time (PT), partial thromboplastin time (PTT), D-dimer concentration, platelet count, and thromboelastography (TEG) are frequently used in domestic species but often overlooked in exotic medicine due to lack of normal reference values and/or availability. Whenever possible, coagulation profiles should be utilized in the evaluation of various disease processes including neoplasia, sepsis, trauma, inflammation, toxin exposure, and envenomation. There are several reports of coagulopathies in both wild and captive species; however, few studies on coagulation profiles have been published on nondomestic species. Clinicians should consider coagulation testing as part of the diagnostic work-up in nondomestic species. A review of available coagulation diagnostic tests is provided here in addition to summarizing the pertinent coagulation disorders currently established in the literature.

Cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) are commonly displayed in zoo and aquarium touch pool exhibits; however, there is a gap in our understanding of how these practices might impact the health of these animals. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare selected health parameters in cownose rays housed in a seasonal outdoor exhibit touch pool system with abundant public contact and an indoor off-exhibit holding system with minimal human contact. All animals underwent physical examination, ultrasound, cloacal wash and cytology, and blood collection for complete blood counts, point-of-care blood analysis, plasma protein electrophoresis, and plasma cholesterol electrophoresis in May and October 2014. Physical examination, ultrasound, and cloacal wash cytology findings were all unremarkable for both groups of animals. Significant differences in health parameters among animals by location and time point were few and included decreased heart rate (F = 12.158, P = 0.001), increased lactate (F = 6.838, P = 0.012), and increased low-density lipoproteins (F = 19.961, P = 0.000) in touch pool animals over time. Based on these results, cownose rays inhabiting a touch pool exhibit and an off-exhibit system remained in comparable planes of health based on routine diagnostic modalities with few differences in measured health parameters.

Pulmonary disease has been well documented in wild and managed dolphin populations. The marginal lymph nodes of the dolphin thorax provide lymphatic drainage to the lungs and can indicate pulmonary disease. This study standardized a technique for rapid, efficient, and thorough ultrasonographic evaluation of the marginal lymph nodes in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Thoracic ultrasonography was performed on 29 clinically healthy adult bottlenose dolphins. Reference intervals for lymph node dimensions and ultrasonographic characteristics of marginal lymph nodes were determined from four transducer orientations: longitudinal, transverse, oblique, and an orientation optimized to the ultrasonographer's eye. The relationship between lymph node dimensions and dolphin age, sex, length, weight, origin, and management setting (pool versus ocean enclosure) were also evaluated. The mean marginal lymph nodes measured 5.26 cm in length (SD = 1.10 cm, minimum = 3.04 cm, maximum = 7.61 cm, reference interval [10th to 90th percentiles per node dimension] 3.78–6.55 cm) and 3.72 cm in depth (SD = 0.59 cm, minimum = 2.64, maximum = 5.38 cm, reference interval 2.98–4.50 cm). Sex, dolphin length, weight, and management setting had no effect on lymph node dimensions. Dolphins >30 yr of age had longer node lengths than dolphins 5–10 yr old. Node dimensions did differ between dolphins from various origins. Most commonly, the lymph node was found to be hyperechoic relative to surrounding soft tissues (98%) and to have irregular caudal borders (84%), ill-defined deep borders (83%), flat superficial border (67%), triangular or rounded triangle shape (59%), irregular cranial border (55%), and moderate heterogeneity (34%). The data reported in this study serve as a baseline reference that may contribute to earlier detection of pleural and pulmonary disease of managed and wild cetacean populations.

Forty adult, male Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) were successfully immobilized for the attachment of global positioning system loggers on their tusks and collection of various biological samples. A standard dose of 7.8 mg etorphine was used for each animal, regardless of body size. All animals were reversed with an iv or im injection of 250 mg naltrexone, immediately after tag attachment. Twenty-seven of the animals were intubated and ventilated with 100% oxygen during the recovery period. The induction time was, on average, 4 min 51 sec ± 1 min 46 sec. Several animals had venous pH, and Pco₂ levels that indicated severe acidosis and hypercarbia. All animals recovered within an average of 5 min 16 sec ± 2 min 47 sec after reversal. The total time from darting to recovery was 15 min 23 sec ± 3 min 33 sec. The use of naltrexone is recommended for reversal of etorphine immobilization in adult, male walruses, and the use of positive-pressure ventilation with oxygen is highly encouraged.

The primary sense in odontocetes is hearing and a large portion of the odontocete brain is devoted to the auditory processing of echolocation signals. Hearing deficits in odontocetes potentially compromise the ability to forage, navigate, socialize, and evade predators. This presents a challenge to survival and reproduction in wild odontocetes and can affect the general welfare of odontocetes under human care. Currently, little empirical information on how odontocete behavior is affected by hearing loss exists. This study investigated hearing deficits in several species of stranded dolphins and age-related hearing deficits in dolphins kept under human care through auditory evoked potential (AEP) testing and evaluated whether individual behavior correlated with hearing impairment. Behavioral questionnaires for participating animals were completed by individuals with extensive knowledge of the animals' history and behavior. A chi-square analysis determined whether animals with hearing impairment demonstrated behaviors that differed significantly from those considered normal. All tested individuals under human care over 35 years of age had some degree of hearing loss, as did a large percentage of previously stranded animals. Individuals with hearing loss exhibited a range of behavioral changes, including delays in learning new behaviors, accepting novel enrichment, and habituating to new environments. Some individuals with profound hearing loss also displayed a change in vocalization rate in various situations. Findings within previously stranded animals suggest AEP studies should be conducted in all stranded individuals entering rehabilitation. It is further recommended that dolphins living under human care undergo hearing tests as part of their normal health assessments, with emphasis on aging individuals and animals that exhibit delayed learning, respond poorly to audible cues, or show atypical vocalization behavior.

We reviewed medical records documenting 28 pregnancies occurring within a herd of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) over a 20-yr (1994–2014) period at a private facility in the southeastern United States. Twenty-six pregnancies resulted in live calves and two ended in stillbirths. The 26 live births represented the offspring of 11 cows and 5 bulls. Twenty-four calves survived their first year, including two critically ill calves born after dystocias. Male and female calves occurred in almost equal numbers. Mean duration of labor in this group was 36 hr although the median duration was 13 hr. Although oxytocin was administered to several cows, parturition did not always immediately ensue. Female fecundity ranged from 1–6 calves while female age at parturition ranged from 9–46 yr. Females delivered their first calves between 9 and 26 yr of age whereas bulls sired their first calves in their 20s, on average. The number of live births and the 93% calf survival rate are among the highest reported in any western hemisphere elephant-holding facility. This may reflect the intensive management of cows before, during, and after each pregnancy, the number of experienced multiparous cows, and the skill level of staff, most of whom had worked with each other and with this herd for many years. The data presented here may assist facilities planning to breed Asian elephants.

Sixteen years of medical records documenting 19 births within a herd of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at a private facility in the southeastern United States were reviewed. Of the 19 calves, 11 were normal at birth, requiring no additional veterinary care, and eight were abnormal, requiring veterinary care immediately or within the first week of birth. Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate morphometrics, vital signs, and behavioral milestones in newborn calves both normal and abnormal. Blood work and urinalysis results from all calves were compared to values for adult elephants. Medical management of abnormal calves is described. All calves had faster heart rates and respiratory rates than did adult elephants, but rectal temperatures were the same. Calves were precocious with regard to sitting and standing but could be very slow to nurse. The most-common medical conditions of newborn calves were umbilical abnormalities and problems associated with nursing. Two calves required cardiopulmonary resuscitation after birth but made full recoveries. Some conditions were not apparent at birth but were recognized a few hours or days later. Following veterinary intervention, six of the eight calves made full recoveries, suggesting that early identification and treatment of problems can greatly decrease mortality. This is the first report of multiple veterinary and behavioral parameters in normal and abnormal neonatal Asian elephants from a facility with a calf survival rate above 90%. This information may be helpful to other elephant-holding facilities in providing care to their newborn elephant calves.

Rhinoceros conservation efforts are essential to the survival of the species. One such effort is focused on using advanced reproductive technologies to produce viable northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) embryos for implantation into southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) surrogates. Anesthesia may be required to facilitate necessary procedures in these surrogate rhinoceros, but commonly reported side effects including hypercapnia and hypoxemia limit anesthetic recumbency time due to animal safety concerns. Although many interventions have been attempted, success in improving these physiologic parameters to date is mixed. The objective of this report is to describe arterial pH (pHa), blood gas (PaO₂ and PaCO₂), bicarbonate, base excess, lactate, and cardiovascular (heart rate, direct arterial blood pressure) values recorded in seven intubated and ventilated female southern white rhinoceros anesthetized for reproductive examinations in a zoological park setting. Anesthetic induction was accomplished using etorphine, medetomidine, butorphanol, and midazolam. The primary hypotheses were that PaO₂ and PaCO₂ would improve after intubation and mechanical ventilation. Induction and recovery observations were also summarized. Physiologic and laboratory data were analyzed using a mixed linear regression model using ranks. Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05. The PaO₂ increased significantly (P < 0.001) following ventilation from a median value of 58 (range, 38–67) to 123 (range, 42–184) mm Hg. The PaCO₂ significantly (P = 0.003) decreased from 63 (range, 55–73) to 52 (range, 30–75) mm Hg, with a corresponding improvement (P = 0.068) in pHa from 7.33 (7.25–7.34) to 7.37 (7.24–7.58) units. Intubation and ventilation improve respiratory parameters and may facilitate safe prolongation of anesthetic duration in white rhinoceros.

Camels (Camelus dromedarius) are important, multipurpose local animals in Iran. Despite their importance, camelid parasitic diseases have not received adequate attention in the veterinary literature. The present study investigated the prevalence of, and molecularly identified, camel piroplasms in Iran. Blood samples from 248 camels from five different regions of Iran were screened for the presence of piroplasmid infection using an 18SrRNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR) sequencing method. Of the 248 samples, 16 were positive for piroplasms via PCR (6.45%). Ten PCR amplicons with expected sizes were sequenced for molecular characterization. Three camels were infected with Babesia caballi and seven with Theileria equi. Statistical analysis showed that age, sex, and location were not risk factors for infection with piroplasmids in camels.

The white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) inhabits a wide latitudinal range in the Americas. Deer species dwelling throughout wide latitudinal ranges have developed subspecies with variations in their reproductive seasonality. In northern subspecies of white-tailed deer, such as those from Canada and the United States, the breeding season occurs from October through December. Odocoileus virginianus veraecrucis is a subspecies that inhabits eastern Mexico, and because its reproductive season has not been studied, it is believed to be similar to that from northern subspecies. The objective of the study was to determine the onset of the breeding season and the profile of fecal steroid hormone metabolites throughout the year in captive white-tailed deer subspecies veraecrucis in Mexico. Two groups of adult deer were included: 1) six does and one buck at a Wildlife Conservation Unit, and 2) five does and one buck at a zoo. From each group of deer, representative fecal samples were collected on a weekly basis for 1 yr for fecal analysis of progesterone and estradiol in the does, and testosterone in the bucks. Data on antler casting, parturitions, and velvet shedding were recorded. Progesterone was high during pregnancy and low throughout the parturition period. Estradiol fluctuated throughout the year. Testosterone was high during the rut and low after antler casting. Antlers were cast in March and velvet was shed in August at both sites. Parturitions started in February at the zoo and in April at the Wildlife Unit. In captive white-tailed deer subspecies veraecrucis the breeding season started in July, and therefore earlier than what has been reported for subspecies from northern latitudes.

Klebsiella pneumoniae is an important pathogen commonly associated with opportunistic infections. In this study, lung pathogenic K. pneumoniae (LPKP) was isolated and identified from suppurative pneumoniae in forest musk deer by conventional methods and by 16S ribosomal RNA sequence analysis. Median lethal dose and histopathologic analysis were used to demonstrate pathogenicity of the organism in mice. Furthermore, a draft genome of LPKP was sequenced, and its virulence genes were detected. One hundred and twenty-two virulence genes encoded determinant of capsule polysaccharide (CPS), lipopolysaccharide, fimbriae, outer membrane proteins, iron acquisition, and urease. In particular, 20 CPS-related genes were highly conserved in LPKP, K. pneumoniae U, K. pneumoniae NTUH-KP35, and K. pneumoniae KP-1. All of the strains were identified as capsular type K54. This is the first report of capsular type K54 K. pneumoniae causing suppurative pneumonia in an animal. The results of this study provided the basis for understanding the pathogenicity of LPKP and laid a foundation for the development of vaccines for the capsular type K54 K. pneumoniae disease.

Due to the intensive management of the scimitar-horned oryx, Oryx dammah, involving both captivity and reintroductions, understanding the stress associated with environmental situations this endangered species might experience would be particularly helpful. Fecal cortisol levels were measured across seasons, between captive management programs, and among varying reproductive states in animals held at Fossil Rim Wildlife Center (FRWC) and Kansas City Zoo (KCZ). A total of 72 samples were collected from FRWC and 69 samples were collected from KCZ. The herd size and sex ratio changed for both locations in the middle of sampling due to translocations and birth. The herd sizes ranged from 25 to 28 individuals at FRWC and 22 to 24 individuals at KCZ. An ELISA was optimized and utilized to investigate fecal cortisol variances across seasons, captive management programs, and among varying reproductive states. Fecal cortisol levels ranged from 68.9 to 668.7 pg/g throughout this study, but key differences were found in response to reproductive status, environmental conditions, and social status. The highest level of fecal cortisol measured (668.7 pg/g) was in a pregnant female 9 days prior to parturition. During winter months, an increase in fecal cortisol levels occurred in both herds (FRWC 160.3 pg/g to 335.1 pg/g and KCZ 118.8 pg/g to 505.0 pg/g). In addition, when intact males were held together in an enclosure, the dominant males had lower fecal cortisol levels compared with submissive males during three of the four sampling periods. Understanding how these data relate to the physiologic stress response will require further study, but these results can be utilized to help establish expected fecal cortisol ranges in multiple environments and can aid current captive scimitar-horned oryx management programs, as well as future reintroduction efforts.

Immobilization and anesthesia of impala (Aepyceros melampus) has become a popular research theme. This demand is brought about by the increased need to immobilize and anesthetize impala and other medium-sized wild ungulates because of their increased value in game ranching and zoological collections. To improve our understanding of immobilization and general anesthesia in these species, it is paramount to be able to study them in a practical, safe research environment that does not cause harm or unnecessary stress to the animals. This study aimed to scrutinize our management and welfare practices and scientific methods of 15 wild-caught impala placed in captive confinement during a 16-wk intensive research project. The scientific methods of the project were scrutinized to identify procedures that attributed to morbidity and mortality. Indicators of impala welfare during captivity were monitored by documenting serial physical (body weight, coat condition), physiological (biochemistry and hematology), and psychologic (behavioral) aspects. Two impala suffered irreparable femoral fractures during darting and were humanly euthanized. One impala suffered cardiovascular collapse during immobilization and could not be resuscitated. The procedure of chemical capture had a morbidity and mortality rate of 14.8% and 4.4%, respectively. The impala maintained acceptable physical and physiologic parameters, including stable body weights, well-groomed coats, and values for total serum protein, serum creatinine, and hematologic parameters that were within reference ranges for the species. There were improvements in the impalas' psychological parameters, which included a decrease in the number of aggressive interactions (head butting and ramming) and an increase in the number of reciprocal allogrooming interactions. The monitored welfare indicators suggest adaptation to captivity. The study showed that impala could be successfully managed in captivity for 16 wk. However, scientific methods (namely darting) increased the risk of injury and caused fatalities.

The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a high-profile threatened species with individuals in captivity worldwide. As a result of advances in captive animal management and veterinary medicine, the ex situ giant panda population is aging, and improved understanding of age-related changes is necessary. Urine and blood samples were collected in April and July 2015 and analyzed for complete blood count, serum biochemistry, and biochemical and microscopic urine analysis for all individuals sampled (n = 7, 7–16 yr of age) from giant panda housed at the China Research and Conservation Centre for the Giant Panda in Bifengxia, Sichuan Province, China. Hematology and serum biochemistry values were similar to those previously reported for giant panda aged 2–20 yr and to Species360 (formerly International Species Information System) values. Urine was overall dilute (urine specific gravity range: 1.001–1.021), acellular, and acidic (pH range: 6–7). This is the first report of hematologic and serum biochemistry, with associated urinalysis values, in the giant panda aged 7–16 yr.

Eleven cases of dilated cardiomyopathy have been diagnosed and treated in captive Livingstone fruit bats (Pteropus livingstonii) in the United Kingdom over the past 7 yr. All but one case received treatment with a diuretic plus an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI), and, or pimobendan. One case is still under treatment with pimobendan alone, following diagnosis before onset of clinical signs. Diuretic treatment consisted of furosemide at a dose rate of 0.5–5 mg/kg, one to three times daily, and, or spironolactone at a dose rate of 1–4 mg/kg, once or twice daily. When used, the ACEI imidapril was given at a dose rate of 0.24–0.38 mg/kg q 24 hr, and pimobendan at a dose rate of 0.2–0.5 mg/kg bid. This report is intended to provide anyone seeking to medically manage heart failure in Pteropus species, particularly P. livingstonii, with a review of drugs and doses that have been used.

Fourteen captive Livingstone's fruit bats (Pteropus livingstonii) were anesthetized for routine veterinary health checks, including echocardiography, using sevoflurane. In addition, three specimens suffering from cardiac disease and a pregnant specimen were anesthetized for clinical assessment. No anesthetic complications were observed in any of the specimens. Significant differences in the core body temperature were found between the esophageal and rectal measurements. A significant decrease in blood glucose was noted through the anesthesia, suspected to be related to an extended fasting period prior to the procedure.

Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) causes chronic, progressive, and consecutively fatal enteritis, especially in ruminants. MAP distribution among wildlife is not yet clear. In this study, three wild-born rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) had been imported from South Africa to a German zoological garden. During the quarantine period, four young animals were born. The wild-born animals showed symptoms of mild diarrhea shortly after their arrival in the zoological garden, but all routine parasitological and bacteriologic tests performed were negative. Therefore, the animals were additionally tested for MAP infection. MAP DNA was detected by seminested PCR (snPCR) in a pooled fecal sample of the seven animals. Subsequent PCR analysis of the individual feces samples confirmed the excretion of MAP in two rock hyraxes (one wild-born and one born in captivity). Sequence analysis of the corresponding 278-bp amplicons revealed 100% homology to the reference MAP-K10 IS900 sequence. No antibody response against MAP was detected in the individual serum samples. MAP-specific postmortem lesions were not observed by gross pathology and histology, neither after death nor after euthanization of the animals. Nevertheless, MAP was detected by snPCR and culture in the gastrointestinal tract, urogenital tract, cardiovascular system, and/or respiratory system of three other animals of the group (one wild-born and two born in captivity). This study is the first report confirming MAP occurrence in rock hyraxes. Therefore, it is recommended that veterinarians and zoo employees consider rock hyraxes as a possible source of MAP infection for domestic livestock in South Africa and the valuable animal stock of zoological facilities.

Population control techniques, either permanent or reversible, are important tools for the management of wildlife in captive and natural environments. Among these, surgical sterilization provides a permanent solution to unwanted reproduction. Surgical techniques can differ in their invasiveness and in the subsequent effect on behavior and physiology. For social animals, techniques that preserve gonads, such as vasectomy for males and ligation of uterine tubes for females, may be preferred because they maintain important physiology that influences behavior. This study compared two sterilization procedures for captive hybrid marmosets (Callithrix sp.). Twenty adult females undergoing tubal ligation were divided into two groups and received treatment either with a laparotomy or a laparoscopic method. The following parameters were evaluated for each female: duration of procedure, pain levels, weight gain, wound healing, adhesion, and inflammation. The results indicate that both techniques were equally effective. However, the conventional surgery may be more advantageous, because it is significantly shorter in duration, is only slightly more invasive, and requires less formal training of the surgeon.

Cystinuria is a condition caused by defects in amino acid transport within the kidneys and small intestines. It has been reported in humans, dogs, domestic cats, ferrets, nondomestic canids, and nondomestic felids, including servals (Leptailurus serval). Genetic mutations have been identified in dogs, humans, and domestic cats. Cystinuria usually follows an autosomal recessive inheritance, although it can be autosomal dominant and sex linked. The primary objective of this study was to screen urine samples dried on filter paper from captive servals in the United States for cystinuria by using the cyanide-nitroprusside screening test. A second objective was to determine whether cystinuria is inheritable in servals. Servals were initially recruited for the study by survey. Owners and institutions interested in participating were sent a second survey and filter paper for collecting urine samples. Samples were collected from 25 servals. One additional serval with confirmed cystine urolithiasis was added for a total sample size of 26 servals. Twenty-seven percent (7/26) were positive, 54% (14/26) were weakly positive, and 19% (5/26) were negative. Sex, reproductive status, and urine collection method had no significant association with test results. This condition is likely underreported in servals and should be ruled out in any serval with nonspecific signs of illness; neurologic signs such as lethargy, ataxia, or seizures; ptyalism; or signs of lower urinary tract disease such as dysuria, hematuria, stranguria, pollakiuria, or urethral obstructions.

The purpose of this study was to carry out a descriptive investigation of the Azara's agouti (Dasyprocta azarae) eye and to establish reference values of select ophthalmic diagnostic tests and physiologic parameters. A total of 19 healthy agoutis were used. Select ophthalmic diagnostic tests were performed, including Schirmer tear test type I (STTI), analysis of the conjunctival bacterial microflora, corneal esthesiometry, and tonometry. B-mode ultrasonic biometry, fundus photography, optical coherence tomography, and gross and histologic analysis of two eyes were also performed. Reference range parameters found for the ocular diagnostic tests were esthesiometry, 4.50 ± 0.36 cm (0.7 ± 0.01 g/mm²); tonometry, 11.61 ± 0.44 mm Hg; palpebral fissure length, 1.70 ± 0.25 mm; STTI, 9.73 ± 0.47 mm/min; corneal thickness, 0.8 ± 0.003 mm; anterior chamber depth, 1.71 ± 0.07 mm; lens thickness, 5.03 ± 0.05 mm; vitreous chamber depth, 5.12 ± 0.01 mm; and globe axial length, 14.02 ± 0.01 mm. A paurangiotic, retinal, vascular pattern with a conspicuous pigment-laden optic disc was observed. The most frequent bacteria isolated were nonhemolytic Streptococcus sp. (36.84%), followed by Enterobacter harfinia (31.58%) and Escherichia coli (28.95%). No significant differences between genders or between left and right eyes were found for any of the results. Gross and histologic evaluation of two eyes confirmed the presence of melanocytic pigment granules between optic nerve fibers. The diagnostic values and the morphologic observations described here provide a reference to veterinarians to aid in the diagnosis of ocular disease.

The importance of vitamin D₃ has been documented in multiple reptile species, with deficiencies resulting in alterations in calcium homeostasis, including nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism. Though vitamin D₃ can be obtained directly from dietary sources or from photobiosynthetic production, species variability in diet and behavior makes exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation an essential requirement for some diurnal species. The effect of different bulbs to promote synthesis of cholecalciferol (vitamin D₃) in the bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) was evaluated. Individual animals (n = 5 for each group) were exposed to industry standard fluorescent bulbs (UVB), non–UVB producing bulbs (UVBN), and light-emitting diode (LED) UVB (LED) bulbs for a period of 11 mo. Weekly measurements of UV index (UVI) were recorded for each bulb. Plasma vitamin D₃, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25OHD₃), ionized calcium (iCa), total calcium (TCa), and phosphorus (P) were measured at time zero and at 4 mo, 8 mo, and 11 mo. Parameters were measured between groups and time points. There were decreases (P < 0.05) with time for iCa for the LED and UVB groups, for TCa in the UVB group, and for vitamin D₃ in the LED and UVBN groups. There were no significant differences between study groups for vitamin D₃, iCa, TCa, or P_. Overall plasma concentration for 25OHD₃ in the LED group was greater than for the UVB (P = 0.0347) and the UVBN (P = 0.0490) groups.

Conservation efforts are investigating the impact of diseases within a species of interest, including prevalence and transmission and morbidity and mortality rates. However, the majority of these studies focus solely on the characteristics of a single pathogen. Recently, the role of copathogens has been reported to impact disease susceptibility and mortality. To that effect, a survey was conducted including 318 eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) from populations in Illinois and Tennessee in 2014 and 2015. Blood samples and oral swabs were collected for quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) of 15 different pathogens performed in a multiplex format using Fluidigm array technology. Four pathogens were found with varying qPCR prevalence: ranavirus (FV3; n = 2, 0.6%), Terrapene herpesvirus 1 (TerHV1; n = 129, 40.7%), box turtle Mycoplasma sp. (BT Myco; n = 14, 4.6%), and box turtle adenovirus (BT Adv1; n = 18, 11%). Thirteen pathogens were not identified in any sample, including Mycoplasma agassizii, M. testudineum, Salmonella enteriditis, S. typhmirium, Borrelia burgdorferi, Anaplasma phagocyophilum, tortoise intranuclear coccidia, Ambystoma tigrinum virus, Bohle iridovirus, Epizootic hematopoietic necrosis virus, and testudinid herpesvirus 2. Copathogen occurrence was rare but was observed in eight individuals with TerHV1-BT Myco detection and two animals with TerHV1-Adv1. Significant differences were observed in pathogen detection across season (TerHV1, BT Adv1, BT Myco, and TerHV1-Myco) and year (TerHV1, BT Adv1, and TerHV1-Myco). The results of this survey highlight that a single pathogen model may not adequately explain pathogen dynamics and that conservation efforts need to be aimed at detecting multiple pathogens in order to fully characterize population health.

With stricter laws regulating the capture and possession of wild animals in Costa Rica, local wildlife-rescue centers have been overwhelmed by an influx of confiscated or relinquished illegal pets, specifically of psittacine species. As part of a nationwide health-assessment program targeting these centers, 122 birds representing five psittacine species (Ara macao, Amazona autumnalis, Amazona auropalliata, Amazona farinosa, Aratinga finschi) and one hybrid macaw (Ara macao × Ara ambiguus) were examined and tested between January 2011 and October 2012. Physical examination, hematology, and serum biochemical analyses were performed. Blood and feathers were tested for psittacine beak and feather disease virus (PBFDV) and avian polyomavirus (APV) via PCR. A DNA-based prevalence and sequence analysis characterized the strains of PBFDV and APV isolated. Physical abnormalities observed in 36% of the 122 birds examined were limited to thin body condition and poor feather quality. None of the feather abnormalities were characteristic of disease caused by either PBFDV or APV. Results of hematological and biochemical analyses were within normal limits except for five birds with leukocytosis and heterophilia, three birds with uric acid values above 16 mg/dl, and two additional birds with AST values above 400 IU/L. No hemoparasites were detected during blood smear examination. Overall prevalences of 9.8% (12/122) for PBFDV and 3.3% (4/122) for APV were documented, with only one bird testing positive for both PBFDV and APV. Birds from two of the eight centers were negative for both viruses. Findings from this study constitute the beginning of a standardized surveillance program for Costa Rican rescue centers, targeting the management of avian species enrolled in propagation and reintroduction programs and expanding of the spectrum of pathogen surveillance and husbandry recommendations in prerelease centers.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of alfaxalone in a small passerine species. A dose-response trial was conducted whereby 10, 30, and 50 mg/kg alfaxalone was administered subcutaneously (SC) to 10 Bengalese finches (Lonchura domestica) in a randomized complete crossover study design. Subsequently, a similar protocol was used to compare 30 mg/kg alfaxalone alone or combined with either 0.7 mg/kg midazolam or 1 mg/kg butorphanol SC. Induction and recovery times were recorded and depth of anesthesia monitored at 5-min intervals throughout each procedure. Functional oxygen saturation and pulse rates were measured with a pulse oximeter at 15 min after administration of the anesthetic agent(s). Dose-dependent decreases in induction time and prolongation of anesthetic duration were seen with increasing alfaxalone dosage. Alfaxalone combined with midazolam resulted in faster inductions, and the addition of both midazolam and butorphanol resulted in longer durations of anesthesia than alfaxalone alone. The addition of midazolam significantly decreased the pulse rate at 15 min compared with alfaxalone alone. Alfaxalone was found to be an effective agent for inducing anesthesia when administered subcutaneously, and no complications were observed. Increasing the dose, and combining with a benzodiazepine or opioid increased the duration of anesthesia with minimal or no effects on respiratory or pulse rates, within the dose range investigated.

Under the project of “Human-Led Migration,” the authors had the unique opportunity to accompany hand-raised northern bald Iibises (NBIs; Geronticus eremita) during migration, which occurred in stages from Bavaria, Germany, to southern Tuscany, Italy. The aim of this study was to investigate the immediate effects of flight, with respect to flight duration, and the more delayed recovery effects on hematologic variables. A total of 31 birds were sampled. Blood samples were taken immediately before takeoff, after landing, and 1 day after the flight. Hematocrit was determined and blood smears were prepared to estimate the total white blood count (tWBC) with leukocyte concentrations (absolute [abs.]) and differential blood cell count (%). Postflight, significant decreases in hematocrit, tWBC, lymphocytes (abs., %), heterophils (abs.), eosinophils (abs., %), and monocytes (abs.) were observed. In contrast, heterophils (%), basophils (%), and the heterophil/lymphocyte (H/L) ratio increased significantly. With increasing flight duration, the H/L ratio increased further. One day postflight, there were still significant decreases in tWBC, lymphocytes (abs.), and eosinophils (abs., %) and significant increases in heterophils (%) and the H/L ratio. The hematocrit dropped even further. These data show that the decrease of tWBC is mainly caused by the lymphocyte fraction and that NBIs need more than 1 day to reverse the postflight changes in some hematologic values. Hematocrit changes postflight and on the recovery day are most likely to be explained by hemodynamics and the metabolic and hormonal changes caused by flight. The hematologic changes postflight in NBIs were largely consistent with those of other birds, but they differed from humans and mammals postexercise mainly in the levels of tWBC, heterophils (matching neutrophils in mammals), and lymphocytes.

The intranuclear coccidian parasite of Testudines (TINC) is an emerging pathogen of tortoises. Three captive red-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis carbonaria) from an isolated collection presented with multiple acute, nonspecific clinical signs. One tortoise died and was diagnosed with intranuclear coccidiosis on histopathology with confirmation by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). In addition to tissues where TINC has been previously described, coccidia were identified in the pineal gland, choroid plexus, and testicular Sertoli cells. The two remaining tortoises survived after treatment with oral ponazuril (20 mg/kg every 48 hr for 56 days) and remained asymptomatic, although not cleared of infection, for 21 months, as the number of coccidian gene copies detected by qPCR was reduced in one tortoise. This report extends the known host range of this parasite to continental South American tortoises, describes new sites of infection by histopathology, and has management implications for this disease.

Blood transfusions can provide life-saving treatment to severely anemic animals. Due to limited availability and the difficulty of storing whole blood and blood products, such as fresh frozen plasma and packed red blood cells, exotic animals often receive fresh whole blood transfusions. Little is known about elasmobranch blood types and transfusions. Conspecific cross-matches within several different elasmobranch species were negative, indicating that in an emergency situation a single whole blood transfusion may be possible without causing a transfusion reaction. Experimental transfusions between healthy conspecific Atlantic rays (Dasyatis sabina) showed no adverse reactions and autotransfusions in marbled electric rays (Torpedo marmorata) were successful. There are no published reports of blood transfusions performed on clinically abnormal elasmobranchs. The following case series documents blood transfusions performed on seven cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) and one short-tail stingray (Dasyatis brevicaudata). All rays were treated with the same protocol, which included pretreatment with steroids and antibiotics followed by an intravenous transfusion of freshly collected, heparinized, whole blood. Three animals survived and currently exhibit no abnormal clinical signs. Two animals died 55 days and 100 days post transfusion. Three animals died 2–22 days post transfusion. Although complications from blood transfusions could not be ruled out, all five animals that died had other health problems that likely contributed to their demise. All eight animals would almost certainly have died without a blood transfusion as they were severely anemic and moribund at the time of presentation. The methods described in this paper may be useful in the treatment of severely anemic elasmobranchs and this is the first report of blood transfusions in clinically abnormal elasmobranchs.

Six female intact fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox) in the San Diego Zoo collection presented with episodic, seasonal alopecia and variable pruritus between the years 1984 and 2015. Presentation was often accompanied by findings such as prominent palpable uterus or cervix and thickened, enlarged uterus on ultrasound. Dermatologic testing has been consistently nondiagnostic for primary cause of alopecia. Both the alopecia and reproductive findings have a higher occurrence from midspring to midsummer. Hormonal changes associated with reproductive activity are proposed as a possible explanation for the dermal clinical signs seen in these six fossas.

A single 8 mg/kg dose of Cefovecin (Convenia®) was administered intramuscularly in the hindlimb of eight anesthetized captive tigers (Panthera tigris) and serial blood samples were collected over the next 56 days to determine pharmacokinetic characteristics. High-performance liquid chromatography was utilized to determine plasma levels, and demonstrated a mean terminal half-life of 227.8 ± 29.3 hr. Cefovecin, >1 μg/ml, was detected in plasma levels up to 56 days postinjection. Protein binding of tiger plasma for cefovecin was 98%. The long duration of therapeutic plasma concentrations and lack of adverse effects make cefovecin a useful antimicrobial drug for tigers.

It is well known that vitamin E and selenium deficiencies in domestic ruminants can lead to white muscle disease. After a clinically normal gestation period at Ouwehand Zoo in the Netherlands, a newborn giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) calf showed clinical signs of white muscle disease almost immediately after birth. The calf was rejected by the mother and was euthanized 3 days later because of deterioration of clinical signs. At necropsy, pulmonary edema and pallor of skeletal and heart muscles was noted. Histologically, there was hyaline degeneration of skeletal muscle myocytes and pulmonary edema. Blood concentrations of vitamin E were ≤ 0.7 mg/L. Based on clinical, biochemical, and gross and microscopic pathological findings, congenital nutritional myodegeneration was diagnosed. This case of neonatal white muscle disease is particularly remarkable given that the diet of the dam contained more than the recommended amount of vitamin E.

This report describes the diagnosis and management of idiopathic epilepsy in a 4-yr-old intact female Reeve's muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi). The patient was initially witnessed to have isolated paroxysmal events consistent with epileptic seizures (altered consciousness, lateral recumbency, tonic/clonic movement of limbs) lasting less than 3 min with an immediate return to normal consciousness. The seizure frequency increased to >3 seizures within 24 hr and phenobarbital 3 mg/kg orally every 12 hr was started. Because of continued epileptic seizures and low serum phenobarbital levels, the dose was increased until significant elevations of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were detected. Levetiracetam 40 mg/kg orally every 12 hr was initiated and the phenobarbital was weaned and discontinued. One breakthrough seizure has been witnessed in the 10 mo since starting levetiracetam.

A 6-yr-old male snow leopard (Panthera uncia) presented with acute seizures, hyperthermia, and tachypnea. Because of a diagnosis of anuric renal failure, the animal was euthanized. On histopathologic examination, numerous intralesional intracytoplasmic and intranuclear inclusions were found in the lungs, lymph nodes, and stomach. Positive immunohistochemical staining for canine distemper virus (CDV) was found in the lungs and, to a lesser extent, in the lymph nodes and brain. Molecular testing yielded a CDV H gene sequence that was closely related to CDV isolates concurrently found in wild raccoons from adjacent forested areas. The leopard had been vaccinated once against CDV with the use of a recombinant canarypox-vectored live vaccine during a routine wellness examination 12 wk prior to death. Serial serum neutralization titers performed on banked serum collected between vaccination and death showed poor serologic response to the vaccine. This case demonstrates a probable failure of protection against naturally occurring CDV.

A 1-yr-old female Congo African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus erithacus) was admitted with a lameness of the right pelvic limb. On the radiographs a closed, caudolaterally displaced, comminuted, diaphyseal fracture of the femur was diagnosed. Surgery under general anesthesia was performed in order to repair the fracture with a paracortical-clamp-cerclage technique. This straightforward and effective technique has been developed as a low-cost treatment for simple and comminuted diaphyseal fractures in dogs and cats. Fixation is obtained with clamps, shaped during surgery, and attached to the bone shaft with cerclage wire. This technique led to immediate weight-bearing, appropriate bone healing, and permanent fixation of the implants in the patient. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this case represents the first report of a surgical repair of a femoral fracture with a paracortical-clamp-cerclage technique in a bird.

The causes of free-living chelonian mortality events are often unknown because of infrequent recovery of remains and rapid postmortem decomposition. This study describes a technique to harvest bone marrow and detect frog virus 3-like ranavirus (FV3) using quantitative polymerase chain reaction in skeletonized eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) (N = 87), and assesses agreement with concurrent perimortem samples (N = 14). FV3 was detected in bone marrow samples from 12 turtle shells (14%). Three of 14 turtles had detectable FV3 loads in both bone marrow and perimortem samples, two turtles had detectable FV3 in bone marrow only, and nine turtles tested FV3 negative in both bone marrow and concurrent perimortem samples. There was substantial agreement between FV3 testing of bone marrow and other tissues (κ = 0.658). Harvesting bone marrow from shells is easily performed and can serve as a means for biologists and wildlife veterinarians to improve postmortem surveillance for systemically distributed pathogens, including FV3.

Eighty-two Pasteurellaceae isolates from marsupials characterized by phylogenetic analysis of rpoB gene sequences formed five distinct groups. Twenty-one strains from long-nosed potoroos (Potorous tridactylus apicalis), spotted-tailed quolls (Dasyurus maculatus), and eastern quolls (Dasyurus viverrinus) made up group 1, which classified with Frederiksenia canicola. Group 2, 15 strains from Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii), common wombats (Vombatus ursinus), common ring-tailed possums (Pseudocheirus peregrinus), and eastern quolls, grouped with Pasteurella multocida. Three strains from koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) formed group 3 and clustered with Lonepinella koalarum. Group 4, 13 common wombat strains only distantly related to other Pasteurellaceae, probably represent a new genus. Finally, 29 strains from Tasmanian devils, spotted-tailed quolls and eastern quolls formed group 5 and clustered with 15 previously described Tasmanian devil strains, belonging to a yet unnamed Pasteurellaceae taxon. The results strongly indicate that Pasteurellaceae bacteria represent a part of the normal oral microbiota in marsupials.

A 21-yr-old intact male walrus (Odobendus rosmarus divergens) presented with acute onset of shifting lameness, initially associated with breeding behaviors. Further clinical signs manifested, including muscle tremors, anorexia, hematuria, and coughing. Diagnostics were limited, as the animal would not offer behaviors for voluntary sample collection. Signs were addressed with anti-inflammatories, anticonvulsants, and antibiotics. The walrus developed cluster seizures and ultimately, respiratory and cardiac arrest. Postmortem lesions included meningoencephalitis with intra- and extracellular protozoal zoites and schizonts, as well as interstitial pneumonia with intraendothelial protozoa. Immunolabeling of the protozoal organisms revealed Sarcocystis neurona. Previous S. neurona infections in an odobenid have not been reported. Protozoal infection should be considered in all species of captive marine mammals with nonspecific orthopedic, neurological, and respiratory clinical signs.

Microsporidia are a diverse, parasitic phylum closely related to fungi. They infect a broad range of host species and tissues. This report describes microsporidiosis infection in a captive, wild-caught peppermint shrimp (Lysmata spp.). The animal was found dead in its enclosure approximately 5 days after molting. Grossly, the skeletal musculature was diffusely swollen, opaque, and pale tan to white. Histologically, skeletal myofibers were replaced by large aggregates of sporophorous vesicles containing up to eight spores and earlier stages of sporogony. Tissue inflammation was minimal. Spores had positive staining with Luna's, Giemsa, Fites acid fast, and Brown and Brenn Gram stains. Ultrastructurally, spores were ovoid with an exo- and endospore, lamellar polaroplast, and polar tube arranged in 9 to 14 basilar, bilayered coils with a straight, apical manubrium. Spores and earlier stages of sporogony were contained within sporophorous vesicles. This is the first report of microsporidiosis in a shrimp from the family Hippolytidae.

The red-footed booby (Sula sula) is a widely distributed sulid native to the Galápagos archipelago. Hematology and blood chemistry parameters have been published for this species, but not from the San Cristóbal rookery. Analyses were run on blood samples drawn from 31 manually restrained red-footed boobies that were captured by hand from their nests at Punta Pitt on San Cristóbal Island. A portable blood analyzer (iSTAT) was used to obtain near immediate field results for pH, partial pressure of oxygen, partial pressure of carbon dioxide, bicarbonate, hematocrit, hemoglobin, sodium, potassium, ionized calcium, and glucose. Blood lactate was measured using a portable Lactate Plus™ analyzer. Average heart rate, respiratory rate, body weight, body temperature, and biochemistry and hematology parameters were comparable to those of healthy individuals of other sulids. The reported results provide baseline data that can be used for comparisons among populations and in detecting changes in health status among Galápagos red-footed boobies.

This study reports body mass and serum chemistry reference values of 121 male and 57 female Nazca boobies (Sulidae: Sula granti) from a colony on Isla Española, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador. Circulating aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, total protein, immunoglobulin Y, uric acid, blood urea nitrogen, triglycerides, cholesterol, and creatinine were quantified and analyzed by sex. Sex explained little variance in all examined variables except mass; females were heavier than males, as expected for sulids. Uric acid values had a bimodal distribution, likely reflecting differences in recent foraging success. Aspartate aminotransferase and creatine kinase values were similar to those reported in other sulids. Clinical health reference values are critical for practitioners investigating responses of seabirds to oil spills, coastal restoration efforts, or emerging diseases. These data from a species living in a relatively isolated and pristine area provide a valuable baseline for future health evaluations.

The objective of this study was to determine evidence of previous West Nile virus (WNV) infection in northern California owls. Owl serum samples were collected from birds presenting to a veterinary medical teaching hospital between 2007 and 2014 and were screened for the presence of WNV antibodies by an indirect enzyme immunoassay (EIA). Only one of 71 samples (1.41%) tested was positive by EIA and confirmed by a plaque reduction neutralization test; it was the most recent sample collected. The reason for the low prevalence of WNV in these California owls despite a high prevalence in sympatric avian species in the same region is unknown and should be a topic for further research.

Southern River terrapins (Batagur affinis) are among the most critically endangered turtles in the world. To augment the Cambodia population, a head-start program was established for the endemic subspecies Batagur affinis edwardmolli in 2006, and in 2015, prerelease health assessments were performed on 70 subadults (hatch years, 2006–2011). Combined choanal/cloacal swab samples (n = 70) were collected and screened by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for Mycoplasma, herpesvirus, and ranavirus. Cloacal samples (n = 50) were also collected and cultured for Salmonella sp. Of 70 tested samples, six (8.6%) were positive for Mycoplasma, and all other PCR and culture test results were negative. Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene placed the Mycoplasma sp. from B. affinis edwardmolli in the chelonian Mycoplasma cluster that groups within the Mycoplasma pulmonis clade. This mollicute was not associated with clinical disease (defined as observable clinical abnormalities, such as depression, lethargy, respiratory signs, and anorexia) and is likely part of the endemic microbial flora of these terrapins.

Carbaryl was the first carbamate insecticide produced and remains the most widely used due to its perceived low level of toxicity in nontarget species. This report describes the management and evaluation of a group of straw-colored fruit bats, Eidolon helvum, that were exposed to carbaryl. Cholinesterase activity of blood, retina, and brain was evaluated to further investigate whether carbaryl was the causative agent. Decreased whole blood and retinal cholinesterase activity coupled with the response to atropine suggests that the cause of the clinical signs in this bat colony was due to carbaryl exposure. Whole blood and retinal tissue may be the best samples for confirming carbamate exposure in this species.

Canine distemper virus (CDV) affects many wild and captive, nondomestic species worldwide but has not been previously reported in Xenarthra. Paucity of information on vaccination safety and efficacy presents challenges for disease prevention in captive collections. CDV infections and subsequent mortalities in five captive Linnaeus's two-toed sloths (Choloepus didactylus) in eastern Tennessee are reported. Clinical signs included oculonasal discharge, oral ulcerations, and diarrhea, and the diagnosis was confirmed by necropsy, histopathology, immunohistochemistry, virus isolation, and polymerase chain reaction. Viral sequencing identified the strain to be consistent with a new CDV lineage currently affecting domestic dogs and wildlife in Tennessee. Seven sloths were examined and vaccinated using a recombinant CDV vaccine on days 0 and 21. Subsequent blood samples showed increased titers in 3/4 sloths. Based on the outbreak and serologic findings postvaccination without adverse effects, the authors recommend recombinant CDV vaccination in sloths exposed to known carriers of CDV.

This article describes the treatment of clinical elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) infection in a male Asian elephant (Elephas maximus; approximately 3 yr old), the dynamics of viral load during the active infection, and genetic analysis of the virus. Treatment included injectable acyclovir (12 mg/kg iv, bid), antibiotic, vitamin, and fluids. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to measure the viral levels in blood, which decreased continuously after initiation of intravenous acyclovir. Low levels of virus were detected in the blood for 2 wk, and the virus was undetectable after 1 mo. No complication was observed during the treatment period. This case report suggests that acyclovir, given parenterally, could potentially enhance survival of clinical EEHV-infected individuals.

An adult male Ruwenzori long-haired fruit bat (Rousettus lanosus) presented for lethargy and unthriftiness. Physical examination revealed cranial alopecia, mandibular ulceration, and dehydration. Supportive care and antibiotic therapy were initiated. The bat was found dead 3 days after presentation. Necropsy revealed alopecia on the head and body, exposed dried bone on the rostral tip of the mandible, and excessive clear pleural fluid. Lungs were congested and contained miliary white foci disseminated randomly throughout the parenchyma. Subcutaneous, intra-thoracic, and intra-abdominal adipose depots were minimal. Histologic examination of skin and lung revealed the presence of algal-like organisms morphologically consistent with Prototheca spp. Polymerase chain reaction amplification revealed >99% sequence identity match with Prototheca zopfii. Protothecosis has been previously reported in a single bat, Lyle's flying fox (Pteropus lylei), in Switzerland, but definitive protothecal speciation was not possible.

A 57-yr-old female Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) presented with signs of intermittent lethargy and inappetence, then subsequently developed profuse hemorrhagic diarrhea. Colonoscopy under anesthesia revealed diverticulosis of the descending colon, with multiple large diverticula containing fecoliths. There was no evidence of diverticulitis, but a regenerative anemia had developed following an acute diverticular bleed. The orangutan recovered with conservative therapy. Colonic diverticulosis has been reported in nonhuman primates and appears to have a similar clinical presentation to the condition as it occurs in humans. This is the first published report of colonic diverticulosis in a great ape.

The editorial office of the Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine recognizes the following individuals for their dedication and service to the Journal for serving as a peer reviewer for manuscripts processed in 2017. Many thanks for sharing your time and expertise.