Nonstop endurance flights are a defining characteristic of many long-distance migratory birds, but subsequent recovery phases are not typically distinguished from fueling phases (collectively “stopovers”), despite endurance flights inducing marked physiological changes including flight muscle atrophy and gastrointestinal tract reductions. Here, we hypothesize that recovery requires unique behavioral adaptations, leading to departures from the predictions of optimal migration theory for time-minimizing migrants. We predict that recovering birds will (1) select (moist) food-rich habitats on arrival; (2) have slow initial fueling rates due to decreased gastrointestinal capacity; (3) show a negative correlation between stopover duration and arrival condition instead of a negative correlation with fuel deposition rate (FDR); (4) stopover longer than required to store energy reserves for subsequent flights; and (5) show evidence of rebuilding flight muscles. To test these predictions, we studied Blackpoll Warblers (Setophaga striata) in northern Colombia following trans-oceanic flights >2,250 km. Birds selected dry seasonal habitats, despite the proximity of moist forests, and among 1,227 captured individuals, 14–21% were emaciated and 88% had atrophied flight muscles. We recaptured 74 individuals, revealing net positive mass gains and, contrary to prediction (2), no evidence for slow initial recovery rates. Contrary to prediction (3), stopover duration was only weakly correlated with arrival condition and birds with high FDR (4.9% lean body mass day–1) had shorter durations (3 days) relative to birds with slower rates (7 days): both groups accumulated sufficient fuel to reach nonbreeding (over-wintering) grounds 500–1,000 km away. Mass increases were largely attributable to fat deposition but some birds improved flight muscle condition (31.9%), consistent with prediction (5). Together these results reveal a strong selection for time-minimization in the decisions made by Blackpoll Warblers following trans-oceanic flights, likely mediated through advantages to early arrival on nonbreeding grounds, contrary to our hypothesis of recovery imposing unique selection pressures.
LAY SUMMARY
Following trans-oceanic flights, migratory landbirds often arrive in an emaciated state and must balance the need to immediately replenish energy reserves against finding optimal foraging conditions, rebuilding digestive organs and flight muscles consumed during flight, and a timely arrival at their final destination.
We studied Blackpoll Warblers arriving in South America following trans-Atlantic flights, many of which had severely depleted fat reserves and flight muscles, to understand how birds balance these needs.
Remarkably, Blackpoll Warblers took just 3–7 days to rebuild their energy reserves and continue migrating, implying a strong time pressure for reaching their nonbreeding (wintering) grounds as quickly as possible.
High densities of birds and rapid refueling rates revealed the importance of xeric habitats on the Guajira Peninsula of Colombia for this steeply declining species, uncovering a previously unknown aspect of the species' migratory journey.
