The herbicide resistance to dicamba (HRd) biotype of kochia is resistant to several auxinic herbicides and is impaired in shoot gravitropism and other auxin-mediated responses. To better characterize the biotype and investigate its mechanism of resistance, we used messenger RNA (mRNA) differential display to compare patterns of dicamba-induced gene expression in HRd and susceptible (S1) plants. More than 60,000 complementary DNA fragments were generated and examined, 106 of which were isolated and used as probes on Northern blots to confirm gene expression levels. Steady-state levels of > 90% of mRNAs did not change after dicamba application. However, several mRNAs were detected whose levels were decreased, increased, or differentially regulated between the biotypes within minutes of dicamba treatment. The abundance of three mRNAs decreased after treatment, two of which had significant sequence similarity to choline monooxygenase and 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase, respectively. Conversely, increased expression levels were observed for a putative chloride channel protein, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase, and an unknown gene. Genes differentially expressed between HRd and S1 plants included those similar to a putative translation initiation factor, xyloglucan endotransglycosylase, and a hypothetical protein cloned from several organisms. The results demonstrate that mRNA differential display is a useful technique for discovering genes that are rapidly regulated as part of a physiological response, and that this approach may provide insight into the mechanism of auxinic herbicide resistance in kochia.

Nomenclature: Dicamba; kochia, Kochia scoparia L. Schrad. KCHSC.

Acetolactate synthase (ALS), a common enzyme in the biosynthesis of branched-chain amino acids, is a target for the sulfonylurea, imidazolinone, triazolopyrimidine, pyrimidinylthiobenzoate, and the sulfonylaminocarbonyltriazolinone classes of herbicides. Widespread resistance to the ALS-inhibiting herbicides has been attributed to single-base mutations in the ALS gene. The objective of this study was to investigate the feasibility of using denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC), a recently developed method of mutation analysis, for the detection of three ALS mutations, Ala₁₂₂Thr, Leu₅₇₄Trp, and Ser₆₅₃Thr, which confer herbicide resistance. The mutated variants of the ALS gene were isolated from herbicide-resistant biotypes of smooth pigweed and Powell amaranth using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The PCR products were hybridized with a wild-type sample and subjected to DHPLC analysis. All three mutations could be detected using a modified High performance liquid chromatography system; however, the sensitivity of the method was strongly dependent on the melting temperature profile of the analyzed DNA fragment. Once the primers and the DHPLC conditions are optimized, the procedure is economical, rapid, and requires little sample preparation. Because of these favorable features, DHPLC can be used as an alternative to other commonly used mutation detection methods.

Nomenclature: Imidazolinone; pyrimidinylthiobenzoate; sulfonylaminocarbonyltriazolinone; sulfonylurea; triazolopyrimidine; Powell amaranth, Amaranthus powellii S. Wats. AMAPO; smooth pigweed, Amaranthus hybridus L. AMACH.

Absorption and translocation of three commercial formulations of glyphosate, the isopropylamine salt formulated as Roundup Ultra™ (IPA1) and Roundup UltraMax™ (IPA2) and the diammonium salt formulated as Touchdown™ IQ (DA), were compared in three- to five-leaf velvetleaf, common waterhemp, and pitted morningglory. Absorption of ¹⁴C-glyphosate in velvetleaf was not significantly different among the three formulations up to 50 h after treatment (HAT). More absorption of ¹⁴C-glyphosate occurred in the IPA1 (26.0%) vs. the IPA2 (17.7%) formulation over 74 h. Of the total ¹⁴C-glyphosate absorbed, 20 to 35% was translocated from the treated leaf to the rest of the plant. Initial absorption of ¹⁴C-glyphosate was rapid in common waterhemp with the IPA1 (42.7%) and IPA2 (30.7%) formulations; both were higher compared with absorption of the DA formulation (11.5%) by 2 HAT. These differences continued up to 26 HAT, but no differences were evident by 74 HAT. Up to 65% of the ¹⁴C-glyphosate absorbed was translocated out of the treated leaf by 74 HAT, with roots the primary sink. Initial absorption of ¹⁴C-glyphosate was slow in pitted morningglory compared with the other species. More foliar absorption occurred in plants treated with the DA (13.6%) vs. the IPA2 formulation (4.9%) by 6 HAT. Absorption beyond 26 HAT was not different among the three glyphosate formulations. Translocation of ¹⁴C-glyphosate to roots was 27% greater as the DA salt than IPA1 and IPA2 by 74 HAT. The distribution pattern of glyphosate was similar in all species; phosphorimages demonstrated movement both acropetal and basipetal, with accumulation in roots greater than in any other plant parts. An efficacy study parallel to the ¹⁴C study showed no difference among the three glyphosate formulations on the species investigated at both 74 HAT and 2 wk after treatment.

Nomenclature: Glyphosate; common waterhemp, Amaranthus rudis Sauer AMATA; pitted morningglory, Ipomoea lacunosa L. IPOLA; velvetleaf, Abutilon theophrasti Medicus ABUTH.

Row spacing and the relative time of velvetleaf emergence affects the time of soybean canopy closure relative to velvetleaf, influencing the growth and development of velvetleaf. Field studies were conducted in northeastern Nebraska in 2002 and 2003 to describe velvetleaf growth as influenced by soybean presence or absence (velvetleaf grown with soybean or in monoculture), soybean row spacing (19 and 76 cm), and relative time of velvetleaf emergence. Velvetleaf seed production, leaf area (LA), and total dry matter (TDM) were greater in 76-cm- than in 19-cm-wide soybean rows. LA, TDM, and seed production of velvetleaf were reduced with later emergence times in both monoculture and with soybean. Velvetleaf LA, TDM, and seed production decreased when grown with soybean compared with when grown in monoculture. Practical implications of this study suggest that narrowing crop row spacing and controlling early-emerging velvetleaf in soybean can be an effective part of an integrated weed management strategy.

Nomenclature: Velvetleaf, Abutilon theophrasti ABUTH; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr.

Resistance to imidazolinone (IMI) herbicides has been incorporated recently into domesticated sunflower through conventional breeding methods. However, there are concerns regarding gene flow of the IMI-resistance trait to wild species and possible accompanying ecological consequences. Hybrids of domesticated sunflower with both common sunflower and prairie sunflower were created, with and without the imazamox-resistance trait. The relative fitness of imazamox-resistant (IMI-R) hybrids was compared with their imazamox-susceptible (IMI-S) counterparts. Greenhouse experiments were conducted to study the growth of IMI-R and IMI-S common and prairie sunflower hybrids under noncompetitive conditions. The photosynthesis rate of IMI-S prairie sunflower was slightly higher than that of IMI-R plants. However, relative growth rate, net assimilation rate, leaf area, and total dry weight were similar in IMI-R and IMI-S common and prairie sunflower, whereas plant height of IMI-S hybrid was greater than that of IMI-R common sunflower hybrids. A replacement series study was conducted under field conditions in 2001 and 2002 to evaluate the relative competitiveness of IMI-R and IMI-S common and prairie sunflower. IMI-R and IMI-S hybrids of both sunflower species were equally competitive. The results suggest that, in the absence of IMI herbicides, genes controlling IMI-R do not reduce or increase the competitive ability of either common or prairie sunflower. Therefore, if the IMI-resistant trait is incorporated in these species, the frequency of IMI-resistance genes is unlikely to decrease, even in the absence of IMI selection pressure.

Nomenclature: Imazamox; common sunflower, Helianthus annuus L.; prairie sunflower, Helianthus petiolaris Nutt.

Characterizing the response of weeds to canopy shade is important for improved understanding of crop–weed competition and weed population dynamics. In 2000 and 2001, field studies were conducted in central New York state to examine the influence of three neighbor types (none, broccoli, or broccoli plus winter rye) and two locations (between or within rows of broccoli) on the morphology, phenology, and seed germination characteristics of Powell amaranth. Reductions in light availability and in the ratio of red-to-far red light were associated with increases in (1) partitioning of dry weight to stem tissue, (2) stem elongation, and (3) specific leaf area. Canopy shade also resulted in fewer main leaves at flowering and a reduced rate of leaf appearance but had no effect on the number of days to flowering. The relationship between Powell amaranth fecundity and aboveground dry weight was allometric, with both parameters declining significantly under competition. The weight of seeds produced did not vary significantly according to the competitive environment experienced by the maternal parent. However, the germination percentage of viable seeds was 40 to 50% lower for seeds maturing on plants grown under competition than without competition. Reductions in the number of main leaves at flowering and increased seed dormancy may be adaptive responses to canopy shade. Both mechanistic crop–weed competition models and population dynamic models would benefit from incorporation of data on the phenotypic plasticity of morphology, phenology, and seed germination characteristics of weeds.

Nomenclature: Powell amaranth = green pigweed, Amaranthus powellii S. Wats. AMAPO; broccoli, Brassica oleracea L. var. italica PLENCK ‘Marathon’; winter rye, Secale cereale L.

London rocket is hypothesized to be the most important overwintering host of the beet leafhopper in southern New Mexico. Knowledge of the environmental factors affecting the emergence of this plant is essential to developing a predictive model for London rocket and leafhopper populations. The temperature and moisture optima for London rocket germination and emergence were assessed using growth chamber studies. Temperatures of 5 to 35 C and soil water tension treatments of − 0.01 to − 1.5 MPa were tested. Optimal seed burial depth also was assessed. Optimal London rocket germination occurred at approximately 15 C and maximum emergence was achieved at 15 to 20 C with soil moisture tensions of − 0.01 to − 1.2 MPa. London rocket emergence occurred best at a seed burial depth of 2 mm.

Nomenclature: London rocket, Sisymbrium irio L.

Predicting weed emergence is useful for planning weed management programs. Unfortunately, our ability to anticipate initial emergence and subsequent levels of emergence from simple field observations or weather reports is often inadequate to achieve optimal control. Weed emergence models may provide predictive tools that help managers anticipate best management options and times and, thereby, improve weed control. In this study, the germination characteristics of four annual grass weeds (large crabgrass, goosegrass, green foxtail, and yellow foxtail) were investigated under different temperatures and water stresses to calculate base temperatures and base water potentials. These parameters were used to develop a mathematical model describing seedling emergence processes in terms of hydrothermal time. Hydrothermal time describes seed germination in a single equation by considering the interaction of soil water potential and soil temperature. The model, called WeedTurf, predicted emergence with some accuracy, especially for large crabgrass (lowest efficiency index [EF] value 0.95) and green foxtail (lowest EF value 0.91). These results suggest the possibility of developing interactive computer software to determine the critical timing of weed removal and provide improved recommendations for herbicide application timing.

Nomenclature: Goosegrass, Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. ELEIN; green foxtail, Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv. SETVI; large crabgrass, Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. DIGSA; yellow foxtail, Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv. SETLU.

Studies were conducted to determine if mesotrione alone or in mixtures with low rates of atrazine would control Canada thistle. In the field, mesotrione applied alone did not adequately control Canada thistle, although smaller plants in the rosette stage of growth were more susceptible than plants in the bolting stage. A mixture of mesotrione at 105 g ai ha⁻¹ and atrazine at 280 g ai ha⁻¹ improved control of Canada thistle over that with mesotrione alone. In the greenhouse, mixtures of mesotrione plus atrazine at 560 g ha⁻¹ reduced Canada thistle regrowth more than mesotrione alone or mesotrione plus 280 g ha⁻¹ atrazine. Mesotrione plus atrazine mixtures increased the rate of tissue necrosis compared with the slower development of bleaching symptoms normally associated with mesotrione alone. Uptake, translocation, and metabolism of ¹⁴C-mesotrione in Canada thistle were generally slow, and results did not explain the increased control associated with mesotrione plus atrazine mixtures. However, higher levels of absorption and translocation and reduced root metabolism of mesotrione in rosette stage plants compared with bolting plants may explain the greater susceptibility to mesotrione in the rosette stage. The changes in symptomology and increased control with mixtures of mesotrione and atrazine were likely due to the interrelationship between the modes of action of these herbicides.

Nomenclature: Atrazine; mesotrione; Canada thistle, Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. CIRAR.

Petri dish bioassays, based on root response of corn grown in soil and perlite, were used to study the activity, adsorption, and leaching of pyrithiobac in a clay, loam, and a clay loam soils containing 2.3, 1.4, and 1.3% organic matter, respectively. Both bioassays indicated that activity of pyrithiobac (reduction of corn root length) increased with increasing herbicide concentration, but in a nonlinear manner, particularly at higher concentrations. Activity of pyrithiobac was similar in clay loam and loam soils, but was lower in clay soil. Adsorption distribution coefficients (K_d) for the clay, loam, and clay loam soils were 0.56, 0.10, and 0.24, respectively. Pyrithiobac leached through all three soils, and biologically available herbicide was detected below 30 cm in all soils; however, the amount leached through the clay soil was lower than that leached through the other two soils. Field persistence of pyrithiobac applied preplant incorporated (PPI), preemergence (PRE), or postemergence (POST) at 68, 102, or 136 g ha⁻¹ was similar in loam and clay loam soils, but was more persistent in clay soil. Pyrithiobac applied POST in clay and loam soils was more persistent than that applied PPI or PRE; however, in clay soil field persistence of POST pyrithiobac was similar with that applied PPI or PRE. Biologically available residues were not detected in 0- to 10-cm soil depth 120 d after any herbicide treatment applied either PPI or PRE in all soils, but this was not the case for pyrithiobac applied POST in the loam soil. Adsorption of pyrithiobac was very low in all three soils, and this was the reason for its increased mobility even below 30-cm depth in all soils. The field persistence of pyrithiobac was generally less than one growing season. However, some pyrithiobac may have moved deeper in the soil and could be harmful to rotational crops after plowing or through capillary movement upward.

Nomenclature: Pyrithiobac; corn, Zea mays L. ‘Pioneer Costanza’; cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L. ‘Stoneville 474’, ‘Hazera Vered’, ‘Deltapine Vulcano’.

One of the primary benefits of site-specific agricultural technologies is the potential to reduce the use of polluting inputs, thereby minimizing ecological damage. Weeds are often found in patches, so site-specific (field scale) management offers a straightforward opportunity to minimize ecological effects related to wasteful broadcast use of herbicides. Beyond possible efficiencies related to accurate targeting, site-specific technologies, through a process of parameterizing management decision models for each field, may improve ecological understanding of weed populations and thus encourage ecologically based management. This hypothesis was assessed with a simple model that combined economic injury–level prediction with a single parameter (growing season precipitation) to represent environmental variability. Model simulations of crop yield in response to weed density at a virtual farm and six surrounding regional experiment stations suggested that localized (on-farm field) parameter estimation may help to circumvent the variability associated with damage function extrapolation from small-plot experiments at experiment stations and thereby improve predictive accuracy for site-specific weed management (SSWM) strategies. Thus, remote sensing and SSWM technologies may allow producers to reduce the risk associated with the reduced use of purchased inputs and greater reliance on natural weed population–regulating mechanisms. Effective ecologically based weed management may be dependent on local parameterization of models.

Growers need affordable methods to sample weed populations to reduce herbicide use with site-specific weed management. Sampling programs and methods of developing sampling programs for integrated pest management are not sufficient for site-specific weed management because more and different information is needed to make treatment maps than simply estimate average pest density. Sampling plans for site-specific weed management must provide information to map the weeds in the field but should be developed for the objective of prescribing spatially variable management. Weed scientists will be most successful at designing plans for site-specific weed management if they focus on this objective throughout the process of designing a sampling plan. They must also learn more about the spatial distribution and dynamics of weed populations and use that knowledge to identify cost-effective plans, recommend methods to make maps as well as collect data, and find ways to evaluate maps that reflect management to be prescribed from the map. Foremost, sampling must be thought of as an ongoing process over time that uses many types of information rather than a single event of collecting one type of information. Specifically, scientists will need to identify common characteristics rather than just differences of the spatial distribution of weeds among fields and species, recognize that map accuracy may be a poor indicator of the value of a sampling plan, and develop methods to use growers' knowledge of the distribution of weeds and past spatially variable management within a field for both making a map and recommending a sampling plan. The value of proposed methods for sampling and mapping must also be demonstrated or adoption of site-specific weed management might be limited to growers who enjoy using sophisticated technology.

To manage or control nonindigenous species (NIS), we need to know where they are located in the landscape. However, many natural areas are large, making it unfeasible to inventory the entire area and necessitating surveys to be performed on smaller areas. Provided appropriate survey methods are used, probability of occurrence predictions and maps can be generated for the species and area of interest. The probability maps can then be used to direct further sampling for new populations or patches and to select populations to monitor for the degree of invasiveness and effect of management. NIS occurrence (presence or absence) data were collected during 2001 to 2003 using transects stratified by proximity to rights-of-way in the northern range of Yellowstone National Park. In this study, we evaluate the use of environmental and remotely sensed (LANDSAT Enhanced Thematic Mapper ) data, separately and combined, for developing probability maps of three target NIS occurrence. Canada thistle, dalmation toadflax, and timothy were chosen for this study because of their different dispersal mechanisms and frequencies, 5, 3, and 23%, respectively, in the surveyed area. Data were analyzed using generalized linear regression with logit link, and the best models were selected using Akaike's Information Criterion. Probability of occurrence maps were generated for each target species, and the accuracies of the predictions were assessed with validation data excluded from the model fitting. Frequencies of occurrence of the validation data were calculated and compared with predicted probabilities. Agreement between the observed and predicted probabilities was reasonably accurate and consistent for timothy and dalmation toadflax but less so for Canada thistle.

Nomenclature: Canada thistle, Cirsium arvense L. CIRAR; dalmation toadflax, Linaria dalmatica (L.) P. Mill. LINDA; timothy, Phleum pratense L. PHLPR.

Remote sensing technology is a tool for detecting invasive species affecting forest, rangeland, and pasture environments. This article provides a review of the technology, and algorithms used to process remotely sensed data when detecting weeds and a working example of the detection of spotted knapweed and babysbreath with a hyperspectral sensor. Spotted knapweed and babysbreath frequently invade semiarid rangeland and irrigated pastures of the western United States. Ground surveys to identify the extent of invasive species infestations should be more efficient with the use of classified images from remotely sensed data because dispersal of an invasive plant may have occurred before the discovery or treatment of an infestation. Remote sensing data were classified to determine if infestations of spotted knapweed and babysbreath were detectable in Swan Valley near Idaho Falls, ID. Hyperspectral images at 2-m spatial resolution and 400- to 953-nm spectral resolution with 12-nm increments were used to identify locations of spotted knapweed and babysbreath. Images were classified using the spectral angle mapper (SAM) algorithm at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10° angles. Ground validation of the classified images established that 57% of known spotted knapweed infestations and 97% of known babysbreath infestations were identified through the use of hyperspectral imagery and the SAM algorithm.

Nomenclature: Babysbreath, Gypsophila paniculata L. GYPPA; spotted knapweed, Centaurea maculosa Lam. CENMA.

Automated detection and identification of weeds in crop fields is the greatest obstacle to development of practical site-specific weed management systems. Research progress is summarized for two different approaches to the problem, remote sensing weed mapping and ground-based detection using digital cameras or nonimaging sensors. The general spectral and spatial limitations reported for each type of weed identification system are reviewed. Airborne remote sensing has been successful for detection of distinct weed patches when the patches are dense and uniform and have unique spectral characteristics. Identification of weeds is hampered by spectral mixing in the relatively large pixels (typically larger than 1 by 1 m) and will not be possible from imagery where weed seedlings are sparsely distributed among crop plants. The use of multispectral imaging sensors such as color digital cameras on a ground-based mobile platform shows more promise for weed identification in field crops. Spectral features plus spatial features such as leaf shape and texture and plant organization may be extracted from these images. However, there is a need for research in areas such as artificial lighting, spectral band requirements, image processing, multiple spatial resolution systems, and multiperspective images.

Nascent research on the profitability of site-specific weed management has focused on reduced herbicide use, ignoring significant information costs for scouting, making treatment maps, and patch herbicide application. Including these information costs results in few, if any, studies, fully covering added costs with herbicide savings. Real-time, sensor-driven site-specific herbicide management promises to overcome many of the scouting and map-making costs so long as weed species recognition accuracy continues to improve and commercial capital costs to decline. Two means to increase revenues are possible from site-specific weed management: value-added crop products (e.g., herbicide-free, nontransgenic crops) and environmental stewardship payments from government programs. Site-specific ecological weed management offers a more fruitful means to garner both higher prices from “green” consumers and revenues for sound environmental stewardship. It entails using spatial tools to enhance habitat for weed predators and diseases and their vectors, as well as to grow crops that are better able to compete with weeds. The most economically promising areas for future weed management will draw upon both spatial and developmental management tools.

Remote sensing and associated spatial technologies provide tremendous opportunity to enhance weed management and improve–protect the environment through judicious use of the most efficacious control methods for a given site. They can also be invaluable assets for detection of invasions, assessment of infestation levels, monitoring rate of spread, and determining the efficacy of mitigation efforts for weed management. In combination with other technologies such as global positioning systems and geographic information systems, sampling strategies can be devised to efficiently determine the location of weed populations in agricultural and wildland situations. Maps created from remote sensing or sampling (or both) allow site-specific weed management of only the areas requiring corrective action. Potential benefits to the land managers and the ecosystem as a whole will come from reductions in inputs, reduced environmental liability from the detrimental effects of applying control measures to entire areas, crop yield increases through better management decisions, and early detection and effective management of invading species. Improvements in spatial and spectral resolution, temporal frequency, image turnaround time, and cost of image acquisition, combined with the realization of the value of the data, are enhancing the acceptance and usage of remote sensing technologies. However, remote sensing will be best used by providing accurate, site-specific data that can be converted into information used by decision support systems (DSSs). Advances in these DSSs, and their ability to incorporate remote sensing data, have been rapid and widespread in the past 10 yr. As a result, federal management and research agencies, academic institutions, and private entities have collectively developed efforts to use this information in monitoring and management efforts for invasive species in western rangelands, aquatic ecosystems and forestry, and site-specific weed management in agronomics.