Knotweed (Fallopia spp.) is an herbaceous perennial from East Asia that was brought to Europe and North America and, despite control efforts, subsequently spread aggressively on both continents. Data are available on knotweed's modes of sexual and asexual spread, historical spread, preferred habitat, and ploidy levels. Incomplete information is available on knotweed's current global geographic distribution and genetic diversity. The chemical composition of knotweed leaves and rhizomes has been partially discovered as related to its ability to inhibit growth and germination of neighboring plant communities via phytochemicals. There is still critical information missing. There are currently no studies detailing knotweed male and female fertility. Specifically, information on pollen viability would be important for further understanding sexual reproduction as a vector of spread in knotweed. This information would help managers determine the potential magnitude of knotweed sexual reproduction and the continued spread of diverse hybrid swarms. The potential range of knotweed and its ability to spread into diverse habitats makes studies on knotweed seed and rhizome cold tolerance of utmost importance, yet to date no such studies have been conducted. There is also a lack of genetic information available on knotweed in the upper Midwest. Detailed genetic information, such as ploidy levels and levels of genetic diversity, would answer many questions about knotweed in Minnesota, including understanding its means of spread, what species are present in what densities, and current levels of hybridization. This literature review summarizes current literature on knotweed to better understand its invasiveness and to highlight necessary future research that would benefit and inform knotweed management in the upper Midwest.

Additional active ingredients are needed for use in aquatic systems to respond to new threats or treatment scenarios, enhance selectivity, reduce use rates, and mitigate the risk of herbicide resistance. Florpyrauxifen-benzyl is a new synthetic auxin developed for use as an aquatic herbicide. A study was conducted at North Carolina State University in which 10 µg L^–1 of 25% radiolabeled florpyrauxifen-benzyl was applied to the isolated shoot tissue of 10 different aquatic plant species to elucidate absorption and translocation patterns in these species. Extremely high levels of shoot absorption were observed for all species, and uptake was rapid. Highest shoot absorptions were observed for crested floatingheart [Nymphoides cristata (Roxb.) Kuntze] (A₁₉₂ = 20 µg g^–1), dioecious hydrilla [Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle] (A₁₉₂ = 25.3 µg g^–1), variable watermilfoil (Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michx.) (A₁₉₂ = 40.1 µg g^–1), and Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum L.) (A₁₉₂ = 25.3 µg g^–1). Evidence of translocation was observed in all rooted species tested, with the greatest translocation observed in N. cristata (1.28 µg g^–1 at 192 h after treatment). The results of this study add to the growing body of knowledge surrounding the behavior of this newly registered herbicide within aquatic plants.

Photosystem II (PS II)-inhibitor herbicide resistance in Ontario waterhemp [Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq.) Sauer] populations is conferred via target-site resistance (TSR) and non–target site resistance (NTSR) mechanisms. Metribuzin-resistant (MR) A. tuberculatus is due to TSR. Conversely, in other populations of PS II–inhibitor resistant A. tuberculatus, plants are resistant to atrazine but metribuzin sensitive (MS). The objective of this study was to determine the biologically effective dose of metribuzin applied preemergence and postemergence for the control of MS and MR A. tuberculatus. Ten field experiments were conducted in 2019 and 2020 to determine the effective doses of metribuzin for 50%, 80%, and 95% control of MS and MR A. tuberculatus. Metribuzin applied preemergence at the calculated doses of 133, 350, and 1,070 g ai ha^-1 controlled MS A. tuberculatus 50%, 80%, and 95%, respectively, whereas the calculated doses of 7,868 and 17,533 g ai ha^-1 controlled MR A. tuberculatus 50% and 80%, respectively, at 12 wk after application (WAA). Metribuzin applied postemergence at the calculated doses of 245 and 1,480 g ai ha^-1 controlled MS A. tuberculatus 50% and 80%, respectively; the calculated dose for 50% MR A. tuberculatus control was greater than the highest dose (17,920 g ai ha^-1) included in this study. Metribuzin at 560 and 1,120 g ha^-1 and pyroxasulfone/ flumioxazin (240 g ai ha^-1) applied preemergence controlled MS A. tuberculatus 88%, 95%, and 98%, respectively, at 12 WAA, whereas the same treatments only controlled MR A. tuberculatus 0%, 4%, and 93%, respectively, at 12 WAA. Metribuzin at 560 and 1,120 g ha^-1 and fomesafen (240 g ai ha^-1) applied postemergence controlled MS A. tuberculatus 65%, 70%, and 78%, and MR A. tuberculatus 0%, 1%, and 49%, respectively, at 12 WAA. Based on these results, PS II–inhibitor resistant A. tuberculatus with NTSR (enhanced metabolism) is controlled with metribuzin applied preemergence and postemergence; in contrast, PS II–inhibitor resistant A. tuberculatus with TSR (glycine-264-serine altered target site) is not controlled with metribuzin.

Populations of rigid ryegrass (Lolium rigidum Gaudin) from southern Australia have evolved resistance to the thiocarbamate herbicide prosulfocarb. The inheritance of prosulfocarb resistance was explored by crossing resistant (R) and susceptible (S) individuals. In all families within each cross, except 16.2, the response of the F₁ was intermediate between the parents, suggesting that resistance is inherited as a single, partially dominant trait. For 16.2, the response of the F₁ was more similar to the S parent, suggesting resistance may be a recessive trait in this population. Segregation at the discriminating dose of 1,200 g ai ha^–1 prosulfocarb in population 375-14 fit the ratio (15:1) consistent with two independent dominant alleles; in population 198-15, it fit a ratio (13:3) for two independent alleles, one dominant and one recessive; and in population EP162, it fit a ratio (9:7) for two additive dominant alleles. In contrast, segregation of population 16.2 fit a ratio (7:9) consistent with two independent recessive alleles contributing to prosulfocarb resistance. Four different patterns of resistance to prosulfocarb were identified in different R populations, with inheritance as a dominant allele, dominant and recessive, additive dominant and as an independent recessive allele. This suggests there are several different mechanisms of prosulfocarb resistance present in L. rigidum.

A goosegrass [Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.] population uncontrolled by paraquat (R) in a vegetable production field in St. Clair County, AL, was collected in summer 2019. Research was conducted to assess the level of resistance of the suspected resistant population compared with three populations with no suspected paraquat resistance (S1, S2, and S3). Visual injury at all rating dates and biomass reduction at 28 d after treatment (DAT) of S populations occurred exponentially to increasing paraquat rates. S biotypes were injured more than R at 3 DAT, with biomass recovery at 28 DAT only occurring at rates <0.28 kg ha–¹. Plant death or biomass reduction did not occur for any rate at any date for R. Paraquat rates that induced 50% or 90% injury or reduced biomass 50% or 90% compared with the non-treated (I₅₀ or I₉₀, respectively) ranged from 10 to 124 times higher I₅₀ for R compared with S and 54 to 116 times higher I₉₀ for R compared with S biotypes. These data confirm a paraquat-resistant E. indica biotype in Alabama, providing additional germplasm for study of resistance to photosystem I electron-diverting (PSI-ED) resistance mechanisms.

The presence of a soil seedbank facilitates the persistence of annual weed species in arable fields. Soil weed seedbank is replenished by many sources, but the largest one is the seeds produced by uncontrolled late-season weed escapes. The estimation of weed seed production potential from late-season escapes may allow farmers to make appropriate management decisions to minimize seedbank replenishment. The objective of this research was to evaluate the feasibility of using unmanned aerial vehicle–based RGB and multispectral imagery for estimating seed rain potential in late-season weed escapes in crop fields. Three case studies were used to capture images of weed escapes before crop harvest: common waterhemp [Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq.) Sauer] in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], Palmer amaranth [Amaranthus palmeri (S.) Watson] in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), and johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.] in soybean. Randomly selected quadrats with different density gradients of weed escapes were sampled at the time of crop maturity. High-resolution RGB and multispectral images of the experimental area were collected using drones immediately before ground sample collection. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), excess green index (ExG), and canopy volume estimates derived from canopy height models were used to obtain weed biological measurements (biomass and seed production). Among the indices investigated, NDVI and ExG had very strong correlations (0.71 to 0.97) with weed biomass. No specific remote sensing variable was ideal across the three cases examined here, suggesting that a generalized remote sensing approach may not offer robust estimations and case-specific applications are imperative. Nonetheless, drone imagery is a powerful tool for estimating seed production from uncontrolled weed escapes and assisting with management decision making.

The germinability of buried seeds changes with time, and the direction and periodicity of these changes differ among plant species. In 116 abundant dicotyledonous herb species, we investigated the changes in seed germinability that occurred during the 2-yr period following burial in the soil. We aimed to establish differences between seeds collected in “anthropogenic” (ruderal, arable land) and “wild” (grassland, forest) habitats. The seeds were buried in a field 1 mo after collection, exhumed at regular intervals, and germinated at 25 C. During the 2-yr study period, four categories of species-specific patterns of germinability changes were found: seeds demonstrating seasonal dormancy/nondormancy cycles (31 species); seeds germinating only in the first season after burial (16 species); seeds germinating steadily (38 species); and seeds whose germinability changed gradually, with increasing (7 species) or decreasing (18 species) germinability. The seeds of 6 species did not germinate at all. We found no significant difference in the frequency of these categories between species typical for anthropogenic and wild habitats. The cause for this result may be dramatic human influences (changes of agricultural practices), the pressure of which impedes the development of floras specific for certain habitats, as distinguished by the frequency of species with particular patterns of seed germinability. These frequencies varied among taxa with the growth form, seed mass, and flowering phenology of species.

Navua sedge [Cyperus aromaticus (Ridl.) Mattf. & Kuek.], is a hard to control C₄ perennial weed species in tropical regions of Australia. Knowledge of its seed biology could help to develop integrated weed management programs for this species. This study was conducted under laboratory and screenhouse conditions to evaluate the effect of alternating day/night temperatures, light, pretreatment high temperatures, burial depth, and flooding depth on the germination and emergence of two populations (Ingham and Tablelands) of C. aromaticus. Both populations germinated at temperatures ranging from 20/10 to 35/25 C; however, the Ingham population germination (76%) was greater than the Tablelands population (42%) at the highest temperature regime (35/25 C). None of the populations germinated at 15/5 C. Darkness completely inhibited germination in both populations, suggesting that the seeds are positively photoblastic. Seeds (dry and wet) of both populations germinated after exposure to pretreatment temperatures of up to 100 C for 5 min. After pretreatment at 150 C, only the Ingham population germinated, and germination was greater for dry seeds (62%) than for wet seeds (1%). Neither population germinated after exposure to 200 C. For both populations, maximum germination was observed for seeds at 0 cm; a burial depth of 0.5 cm completely inhibited emergence of the Tablelands population, and a burial depth of 2.0 cm completely inhibited germination of the Ingham population. A flooding depth of 10 cm greatly reduced emergence in both populations compared with 0 cm (62% and 78%) but 12% to 14% of seedlings still emerged, suggesting the need to integrate flooding with other management tools. The results also suggest that the Ingham population may have a greater potential to spread into new areas or become more invasive than the Tablelands population. Knowledge gained from this study can be used to manage C. aromaticus by fire/burning, tillage, and flooding.

Sweet acacia [Vachellia farnesiana (L.) Willd.] is a problematic thorny weed species in several parts of Australia. Knowledge of its seed biology could help to formulate weed management decisions for this and similar species. Experiments were conducted to determine the effect of hot water (scarification), alternating temperatures, light, salt stress, and water stress on seed germination of two populations of V. farnesiana and to evaluate the response of its young seedlings (the most sensitive developmental stage) to commonly available postemergence herbicides in Australia. Both populations responded similarly to all the environmental factors and herbicides; therefore, data were pooled over the populations. Seeds immersed in hot water at 90 C for 10 min provided the highest germination (88%), demonstrating physical dormancy in this species. Seeds germinated at a wide range of alternating day/night temperatures from 20/10 C (35%) to 35/25 C (90%), but no seeds germinated at 15/5 C. Germination was not affected by light, suggesting that seeds are nonphotoblastic and can germinate under a plant canopy or when buried in soil. Germination was not affected by sodium chloride (NaCl) concentrations up to 20 mM, and about 50% of seeds could germinate at 160 mM NaCl, suggesting high salt tolerance ability. Germination was only 13% at –0.2 MPa osmotic potential, and no seeds germinated at –0.4 MPa, suggesting that V. farnesiana seeds may remain ungerminated until moisture conditions have become conducive for germination. A number of postemergence herbicides, including 2,4-D + picloram, glufosinate, paraquat, and saflufenacil, provided >85% control of biomass of young seedlings compared with the non-treated control treatment. Knowledge gained from this study will help to predict the potential spread of V. farnesiana in other areas and help to integrate herbicide use with other management strategies.

Sumatran fleabane [Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) Walker] is an emerging weed in the Australian cropping region. Populations resistant to glyphosate have evolved in Australia, creating the demand for information regarding the seed germination ecology of glyphosate-resistant (R) and glyphosate-susceptible (S) populations of C. sumatrensis. A study was conducted to examine the effects of temperature, light intensity, salt stress, osmotic stress, and burial depth on the germination and emergence of two populations (R and S) of C. sumatrensis. Both populations were able to germinate over a wide range of alternating day/night temperatures (15/5 to 35/25 C). In light/dark conditions, the R population had higher germination than the S population at 20/10 and 35/25 C. In the dark, the R population had higher germination than the S population at 25/15 C. In the dark, germination was inhibited at 30/20 C and above. Averaged over populations, seed germination of C. sumatrensis was reduced by 97% at zero light intensity (completely dark conditions) compared with full light intensity. Seed germination of C. sumatrensis was reduced by 17% and 85% at osmotic potentials of –0.4, and –0.8 MPa, respectively, compared with the control treatment. The R population had lower germination (57%) than the S population (72%) at a sodium chloride concentration of 80 mM. Seed germination was highest on the soil surface and emergence was reduced by 87% and 90% at burial depths of 0.5 and 1.0 cm, respectively. Knowledge gained from this study suggests that a shallow-tillage operation to bury weed seeds in conventional tillage systems and retention of high residue cover on the soil surface in zero-till systems may inhibit the germination of C. sumatrensis. This study also warrants that the R population may have a greater risk of invasion over a greater part of a year due to germination over a broader temperature range.

Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.) is one of the worst weeds in crop fields, and it spreads mainly by the dispersal of seeds. Temperature is one of the key environmental factors affecting seed germination. We investigated the seed germination response to temperature in six populations of S. nigrum from mid- to northern China and derived mathematical models from germination data. The results showed that S. nigrum seeds exhibit distinct germination responses to temperature within the range of 15 to 35 C. The optimum temperature for populations XJ1600, JL1697, and HLJ2134 was 30 C, and those for populations NMG1704, HN2160, and LN2209 were 25, 20, and 15 C, respectively. Based on the nonlinear fitting and thermal time models, the predicted base temperatures of the six populations ranged from 2.3 to 6.4 C, and the required accumulated growing degree days (GDD) ranged from 50.3 to 106.0 C·d. The base temperatures and the accumulated GDD for germination differed among populations, and there was a significant negative correlation. HLJ2134 population required a high base temperature and accumulated GDD for germination, indicating that it might be highly adapted to a warmer and moister environment. Based on the different germination responses of S. nigrum populations to temperature, the thermal time model reflects an innate relationship between base temperature and accumulated GDD required for initiation of seed germination, which provides a better basis for predicting seedling emergence and the timing for optimal control of S. nigrum under field conditions.

The current study aimed to screen glyphosate-alternative weed control methods in three perennial crops in Greece. Field trials were conducted and repeated (2018 to 2019 and 2019 to 2020) in a citrus orchard (Citrus clementina Hort. ex Tan), an olive grove (Olea europaea L.), and a vineyard (Vitis vinifera L.) under the randomized complete block design (nine treatments, four blocks). Glyphosate was applied in the citrus orchard (720 g ae ha^–1), the olive grove (720 g ae ha^–1), and the vineyard (1,800 g ae ha^–1). Pelargonic acid (1,088 g ha^–1; two times), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) residues and white mustard (Sinapis alba L.) residues were evaluated in all sites. Mowing was evaluated in the citrus orchard (one time) and the vineyard (two times). Flazasulfuron (50 g ha^–1), oxyfluorfen (144 g ha^–1), and flumioxazin (150 g ha^–1) were applied in the citrus orchard and the olive grove. Penoxsulam + florasulam (15 + 7.5 g ha^–1) was also applied in the olive grove. Cycloxydim (200 g ha^–1), quizalofop-p-ethyl (150 g ha^–1) and propaquizafop (150 g ha^–1) were applied in the vineyard. An untreated control was included in all sites. Flazasulfuron, oxyfluorfen, and flumioxazin resulted in similar normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and weed biomass to glyphosate in the citrus orchard in both years and evaluations. Pelargonic acid (two times) and mowing (one time) were effective on broadleaf weeds. Flazasulfuron and penoxsulam + florasulam were the most promising glyphosate-alternative weed control methods against hairy fleabane [Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist] in the olive grove. Cover crop residues showed their suppressive ability as in the citrus orchard. All selective herbicides resulted in similar NDVI and johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.] dry weight values in the vineyard in both years. Negative and strong correlations were observed in all sites and years between crop yield and weed dry weight (R² = 0.543 to 0.924).

On-site surveys of weed populations provide information on the relative occurrence and density of weeds that can be useful to growers in that region. Data generated by weed surveys can aid in the management of weed issues by monitoring the movement of problem weeds and forecasting areas susceptible to infestations. Currently, on-site surveys are often performed on a small scale, within single fields or counties. Questionnaire surveys are helpful for assessing relative abundance but do not always provide detailed information on weed distribution in time or space. A survey was conducted annually in Ohio from 2013 through 2017 in 49 counties with soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production to assess the late-season occurrence of horseweed [Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist]. The objectives of this research were to: (1) determine the frequency, level of infestation, and distribution of C. canadensis in soybean fields in the primary soybean-producing Ohio counties over 5 yr; and (2) identify significant spatial clusters or movement trends over time. Conyza canadensis was encountered in each county from 2013 through 2017. Spatial cores of interest, or counties identified as having significant levels of C. canadensis infestations or a lack thereof relative to surrounding counties, were identified in all years except 2017. The lowest frequency of C. canadensis encountered at all rating levels occurred in 2017, which coincided with second-highest frequency of infestations (highest density level) among years. There was no distinct distribution or pattern of C. canadensis movement within the state from year to year, but there was an increase in counties with infestations over time compared with the early years of the survey when many counties had few to no infestations. These results suggest that C. canadensis persists as a common and troublesome threat to Ohio soybean producers and that growers should continue making C. canadensis management a priority when developing weed control programs.