The objective of this paper was to review the reproductive biology, herbicide-resistant (HR) biotypes, pollen-mediated gene flow (PMGF), and potential for transfer of alleles from HR to herbicide-susceptible grass weeds including barnyardgrass, creeping bentgrass, Italian ryegrass, johnsongrass, rigid (annual) ryegrass, and wild oats. The widespread occurrence of HR grass weeds is at least partly due to PMGF, particularly in obligate outcrossing species such as rigid ryegrass. Creeping bentgrass, a wind-pollinated turfgrass species, can efficiently disseminate herbicide resistance alleles via PMGF and movement of seeds and stolons. The genus Agrostis contains about 200 species, many of which are sexually compatible and produce naturally occurring hybrids and hybrids with species in the genus Polypogon. The self-incompatibility, extremely high outcrossing rate, and wind pollination in Italian ryegrass clearly point to PMGF as a major mechanism by which herbicide resistance alleles can spread across agricultural landscapes, resulting in abundant genetic variation within populations and low genetic differentiation among populations. Italian ryegrass can readily hybridize with perennial ryegrass and rigid ryegrass due to their similarity in chromosome numbers (2n = 14), resulting in interspecific gene exchange. Johnsongrass, barnyardgrass, and wild oats are self-pollinated species, so the potential for PMGF is relatively low and limited to short distances; however, seeds can easily shatter upon maturity before crop harvest, leading to wider dispersal. The occurrence of PMGF in reviewed grass weed species, even at a low rate, is greater than that of spontaneous mutations conferring herbicide resistance in weeds and thus can contribute to the spread of herbicide resistance alleles. This review indicates that the transfer of herbicide resistance alleles occurs under field conditions at varying levels depending on the grass weed species.

Nomenclature: Barnyardgrass; Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv.; creeping bentgrass; Agrostis stolonifera L.; Italian ryegrass; Lolium perenne ssp. multiflorum (Lam.) Husnot; johnsongrass; Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.; perennial ryegrass; Lolium perenne L.; rigid (annual) ryegrass; Lolium rigidum Geud.; sterile oat; Avena sterilis L.; wild oat; Avena fatua L.

Herbicide management information is lacking for recently developed turf-type bahiagrass germplasm. The objective of this study was to evaluate the herbicide tolerance of nine experimental bahiagrass genotypes compared to the industry standard ‘Argentine’. The experimental entries included Argentine and ‘Wilmington’ mutants, and wild-type breeding lines. Plants were grown under greenhouse conditions, and 12 herbicides were applied at 1× and 2× labeled rates. Bentazon, bromoxynil, carfentrazone + 2,4-D + MCPP + dicamba, and carfentrazone were classified as safe. Fluroxypyr, halosulfuron, and triclopyr + clopyralid reduced growth >50% when applied at twice the label rate. Fenoxaprop, sulfentrazone + imazethapyr, and thiencarbazone + iodosulfuron + dicamba reduced growth and caused turfgrass injury above an acceptable threshold (≥20%). In general, the Argentine mutants showed greater herbicide injury compared to the Wilmington mutants. However, metsulfuron exceeded the acceptable injury threshold and stopped growth in all the genotypes, Argentine and genotype WT6 were the least injured by this herbicide. The experimental genotype WT6 consistently showed the greatest herbicide tolerance. Except for one genotype (WT4), the experimental genotypes responded similarly or better than Argentine to the tested herbicides, except for metsulfuron.

Nomenclature: Bentazon; bromoxynil; carfentrazone; clopyralid; 2; 4-D; MCPP; dicamba; fenoxaprop; fluroxypyr; halosulfuron; imazethapyr; iodosulfuron; metsulfuron; sulfentrazone; sulfosulfuron; thiencarbazone; triclopyr; bahiagrass; Paspalum notatum Flugge

Yellow nutsedge is one of the most widely distributed and troublesome weeds in the world. Field and greenhouse studies were conducted to optimize strategies for increased yellow nutsedge control in turfgrass with halosulfuron and sulfentrazone. In the field study in yellow nutsedge and perennial ryegrass mixture, single or sequential applications (3 wk after initial) of halosulfuron or sulfentrazone were made on June 3, June 23, July 15, or August 5 in 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016. Percent yellow nutsedge control was rated within the same growing season on September 17 and the following year on June 3 for carryover control. Field and greenhouse studies confirm that sequential applications of halosulfuron with a 3-wk interval resulted in >95% control in a yellow nutsedge–turfgrass mixture. In a greenhouse study, both herbicides reduced yellow nutsedge root and rhizome dry mass from 39% to 98%, reduced number of new tubers and tuber fresh weight from 38% to 100%, and prevented re-emergence. Sequential applications of either herbicide within a 3-wk interval early postemergence is recommended for optimal control. Herbicide application to yellow nutsedge using halosulfuron and sulfentrazone should be made as early as possible postemergence, preferably at the three- to five-leaf stage or 200 to 250 growing degree days (GDD, 10 C base). Mowing can be an effective method to reduce yellow nutsedge growth. Mowing at 7.6 cm weekly reduced yellow nutsedge rhizome dry mass by 55% and number of new tubers formed by 63% in the greenhouse study. Physical removal of yellow nutsedge plants such as hand-pulling can be an effective method to manage yellow nutsedge and is most effective at the three- to five-leaf stage (200 to 250 GDD). End-users can maximize yellow nutsedge control by integrating early herbicide treatments and cultural practices such as mowing and hand-pulling.

Nomenclature: Halosulfuron; sulfentrazone; yellow nutsedge, Cyperus esculentus L.; perennial ryegrass, Lolium perenne L.

Wood vinegar, a product of pyrolysis, can induce phytotoxicity on plants when applied at an adequate rate and concentration. The objective of this research was to investigate wood vinegar obtained from the pyrolysis of apple tree branches for weed control in dormant zoysiagrass. In environment-controlled growth chambers, white clover visual injury and shoot mass reduction were evaluated and compared to the nontreated control after wood vinegar application at 1,000, 2,000, or 4,000 L ha^–1 under 10 C or 30 C temperature conditions. Averaged across rates, wood vinegar rapidly desiccated white clover and caused 83% and 71% visual injury at 10 C and 30 C, respectively, at 1 d after treatment (DAT). Averaged across temperatures, wood vinegar at 1,000, 2,000, and 4,000 L ha^–1 reduced white clover shoot mass by 56%, 81%, and 98% from the nontreated control at 10 DAT, respectively. In field experiments, weed control increased as wood vinegar rates increased from 1,000 to 5,000 L ha^–1 in dormant zoysiagrass. The effective application dose of wood vinegar required to provide 90% control (ED₉₀) of annual fleabane, Persian speedwell, and white clover was determined to be 2,450, 2,300, and 4,020 L ha^–1, respectively, at 2 wk after treatment. Turf quality did not differ among the wood vinegar treatments and the nontreated control when zoysiagrass completely recovered from dormancy. Overall, results illustrate that wood vinegar resulting from the pyrolysis of apple tree branches can be used as a nonselective herbicide in dormant turfgrass, offering a new nonsynthetic herbicide option for weed control in managed turf.

Nomenclature: Annual fleabane; Erigeron annuus L. Pers.; Persian speedwell; Veronica persica Poir.; white clover; Trifolium repens L.; apple; Malus domestica L.; zoysiagrass; Zoysia japonica Steud.

Four field experiments were completed in commercial corn fields during 2019 and 2020 to determine glyphosate-resistant (GR) horseweed control in corn with tiafenacil alone or in combination with bromoxynil, dicamba, or tolpyralate applied preplant (PP). Corn planted 1 to 10 d after herbicide application was not injured with any of the herbicides tested. GR horseweed interference reduced corn grain yield 32% when left uncontrolled. Herbicides reduced GR horseweed interference and resulted in corn grain yield that was similar to the weed-free control. Glyphosate (900 g ae ha^-1) + tiafenacil at 12.5, 25, and 37.5 g ha^-1 controlled GR horseweed 63%, 68%, and 72% at 4 wk after treatment (WAT) and decreased GR horseweed density 64%, 43%, and 83% and dry biomass 69%, 55%, and 83%, respectively. Glyphosate + tiafenacil at 12.5, 25, and 37.5 g ha^-1 plus bromoxynil (280 g ai ha^-1) controlled GR horseweed 81%, 88%, and 87% at 4 WAT and reduced GR horseweed density 82%, 94%, and 93% and dry biomass 93%, 93%, and 98%, respectively. Glyphosate + tiafenacil at 12.5, 25, and 37.5 g ha^-1 plus dicamba (300 g ai ha^-1) controlled GR horseweed 86%, 88%, and 88% at 4 WAT and decreased GR horseweed density 76%, 89%, and 86% and dry biomass 94%, 98%, and 98%, respectively. Glyphosate + tiafenacil at 12.5, 25, and 37.5 g ha^-1 plus tolpyralate (30 g ai ha^-1) controlled GR horseweed 90%, 90%, and 91% at 4 WAT and decreased GR horseweed density 93%, 91%, and 95% and dry biomass 98%, 97%, and 97%, respectively. The industry standards in Ontario, glyphosate + dicamba/atrazine and glyphosate + saflufenacil/dimethenamid-p controlled GR horseweed 95% and 100% at 4, 8, and 12 WAT and caused 99% and 100% density or biomass reduction, respectively.

Nomenclature: Atrazine; bromoxynil; dicamba; dimethenamid-p; glyphosate; saflufenacil; tiafenacil; tolpyralate; horseweed; Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist; corn; Zea mays L.

Three herbicide premixes have recently been introduced for weed control in wheat: halauxifen + florasulam, thifensulfuron + fluroxypyr, and bromoxynil + bicyclopyrone. The objective of this study was to evaluate these herbicides along with older products for their control of small-seeded false flax in winter wheat in Oklahoma. Studies took place during the 2017, 2018, and 2020 winter wheat growing seasons. Weed control was visually estimated every 2 wk throughout the growing season, and wheat yield was collected in all 3 yr. Small-seeded false flax diameter was approximately 6 cm at the time of application in all years. Control ranged from 96% to 99% following all treatments with the exception of bicyclopyrone + bromoxynil and dicamba alone, which controlled false flax 90%. All treatments containing an acetolactate synthase (ALS)–inhibiting herbicide achieved adequate control; therefore, resistance is not suspected in this population. Halauxifen + florasulam and thifensulfuron + fluroxypyr effectively controlled small-seeded false flax similarly to other standards recommended for broadleaf weed control in wheat in Oklahoma. Rotational use of these products allows producers flexibility in controlling small-seeded false flax and reduces the potential for development of herbicide resistance in this species.

Nomenclature: Bicyclopyrone; bromoxynil; dicamba; florasulam; fluroxypyr; halauxifen; thifensulfuron; small-seeded false flax; Camelina microcarpa Andrz. ex DC.; wheat; Triticum aestivum L.

Yield losses due to weeds are a major threat to wheat production and economic well-being of farmers in the United States and Canada. The objective of this Weed Science Society of America (WSSA) Weed Loss Committee report is to provide estimates of wheat yield and economic losses due to weeds. Weed scientists provided both weedy (best management practices but no weed control practices) and weed-free (best management practices providing >90% weed control) average yield from replicated research trials in both winter and spring wheat from 2007 to 2017. Winter wheat yield loss estimates ranged from 2.9% to 34.4%, with a weighted average (by production) of 25.6% for the United States, 2.9% for Canada, and 23.4% combined. Based on these yield loss estimates and total production, the potential winter wheat loss due to weeds is 10.5, 0.09, and 10.5 billion kg with a potential loss in value of US$2.19, US$0.19, and US$2.19 billion for the United States, Canada, and combined, respectively. Spring wheat yield loss estimates ranged from 7.9% to 47.0%, with a weighted average (by production) of 33.2% for the United States, 8.0% for Canada, and 19.5% combined. Based on this yield loss estimate and total production, the potential spring wheat loss is 4.8, 1.6, and 6.6 billion kg with a potential loss in value of US$1.14, US$0.37, and US$1.39 billion for the United States, Canada, and combined, respectively. Yield loss in this analysis is greater than some previous estimates, likely indicating an increasing threat from weeds. Climate is affecting yield loss in winter wheat in the Pacific Northwest, with percent yield loss being highest in wheat-fallow systems that receive less than 30 cm of annual precipitation. Continued investment in weed science research for wheat is critical for continued yield protection.

Nomenclature: wheat; Triticum aestivum L.

Wild radish is the most problematic broadleaf weed in Australian grain production. The propensity of wild radish to evolve resistance to herbicides has led to high frequencies of multiple herbicide–resistant populations present in these grain production regions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of mesotrione to selectively control wild radish in wheat. The initial dose response pot trials determined that at the highest mesotrione rate of 50 g ha^–1 applied preemergence (PRE) was 30% more effective than when applied postemergence (POST) on wild radish. This same rate of mesotrione applied POST resulted in a 30% reduction in wheat biomass compared to 0% for the PRE application. Subsequent mesotrione PRE dose response trials identified a wheat selective rate range of >100 and <300 g ai ha^–1 that provided greater than 85% wild radish control with less than 15% reduction in wheat growth. Field evaluations confirmed the efficacy of mesotrione at 100 to 150 g ai ha^–1 in reducing wild radish populations by greater than 85% following PRE application and incorporation by wheat planting. Additionally, these field trials demonstrated the opportunity for season-long control of wild radish when mesotrione applied PRE was followed by bromoxynil applied POST. The sequential PRE application of mesotrione, a herbicide that inhibits p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase, followed by POST application of bromoxynil, a herbicide that inhibits photosystem II, has the potential to provide 100% wild radish control with no effect on wheat growth.

Nomenclature: Bromoxynil; mesotrione; wild radish; Raphanus raphanistrum L.; wheat; Triticum aestivum L.

Increased frequency and occurrence of herbicide-resistant biotypes heightens the need for alternative wild oat management strategies. This study aimed to exploit the height differential between wild oat and crops by targeting wild oat between panicle emergence and seed shed timing. Two field studies were conducted either in Lacombe, AB, or Lacombe, AB and Saskatoon, SK, from 2015 to 2017. In the first study, we compared panicle removal methods: hand clipping, use of a hedge trimmer, and a selective herbicide crop topping application to a weedy check and an industry standard in-crop herbicide application in wheat. These treatments were tested early (at panicle emergence), late (at initiation of seed shed), or in combination at one location over 3 yr. In the second study, we investigated optimal timing of panicle removal via a hedge trimmer with weekly removals in comparison to a weedy check in wheat and lentil. This study was conducted at two locations, Lacombe, AB, and Saskatoon, SK, over 3 yr. Among all the tested methods, the early crop topping treatment consistently had the largest impact on wild oat density, dockage, seedbank, and subsequent year crop yield. The early (at panicle emergence) or combination of early and late (at initiation of seed shed) treatments tended to reduce wild oat populations the following season the most compared to the late treatments. Subsequent wild oat populations were not influenced by panicle removal timing, but only by crop and location interactions. Panicle removal timing did significantly affect wild oat dockage in the year of treatment, but no consistent optimal timing could be identified. However, the two studies together highlight additional questions to be investigated, as well as the opportunity to manage wild oat seedbank inputs at the panicle emergence stage of the wild oat lifecycle.

Nomenclature: Wild oat, Avena fatua L.; canola, Brassica napus L.; lentil, Lens culinaris L.; wheat, Triticum aestivum L.

Late-season control of Palmer amaranth in postharvest wheat stubble is important for reducing the seedbank. Our objectives were to evaluate the efficacy of late-season postemergence herbicides for Palmer amaranth control, shoot dry biomass, and seed production in postharvest wheat stubble. Field experiments were conducted at Kansas State University Agricultural Research Center near Hays, KS, during 2019 and 2020 growing seasons. The study site had a natural seedbank of Palmer amaranth. Herbicide treatments were applied 3 wk after wheat harvest when Palmer amaranth plants had reached the inflorescence initiation stage. Palmer amaranth was controlled by 96% to 98% 8 wk after treatment and shoot biomass as well as seed production was prevented when paraquat was applied alone or when mixed with atrazine, metribuzin, flumioxazin, 2,4-D, sulfentrazone, pyroxasulfone + sulfentrazone, or flumioxazin + metribuzin, and with glyphosate + dicamba, glyphosate + 2,4-D, saflufenacil + 2,4-D, glufosinate + dicamba + glyphosate, and glufosinate + 2,4-D + glyphosate. Palmer amaranth was controlled by 89% to 93% with application of glyphosate, glufosinate, dicamba + 2,4-D, saflufenacil + atrazine, and saflufenacil + metribuzin resulting in Palmer amaranth shoot biomass of 15 to 56 g m^-2 and production of 1,080 to 7,040 seeds m^-2. Palmer amaranth control was less than 86% with application of dicamba, 2,4-D, dicamba + atrazine, and saflufenacil resulting in Palmer amaranth shoot biomass of 38 to 47 g m^-2 and production of 3,110 to 6,190 seeds m^-2. Palmer amaranth was controlled 63% and 72%, shoot biomass was 178 and 161 g m^-2, and seed production was 35,180 and 39,510 seeds m^-2, respectively, with application of 2,4-D + bromoxynil + fluroxypyr, and bromoxynil + pyrasulfotole + atrazine. Growers should use these effective postemergence herbicide mixes for Palmer amaranth control to prevent seed prevention postharvest in wheat stubble.

Nomenclature: Atrazine; bromoxynil; dicamba; flumioxazin; fluroxypyr; glufosinate; glyphosate; metribuzin; paraquat; pyrasulfotole; pyroxasulfone; saflufenacil; sulfentrazone; 2; 4-D; wheat; Triticum aestivum L.; Palmer amaranth; Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson

Sulfuryl fluoride (SF) is currently used as a fumigant for control of drywood termites and insects in building structures, vehicles, wood products, postharvest commodities, and food processing facilities. This research investigated the feasibility of using SF as a preplant soil fumigant for purple nutsedge control in plastic-mulched tomato production. SF treatments included SF injected through drip tapes or SF injected through drip tapes a few hours following shank injection of chloropicrin (Pic). Results revealed that SF alone at 224, 336, or 448 kg ha^–1 was generally less effective compared with when it was applied in conjunction with Pic at 168 kg ha^–1. SF alone provided inconsistent control of purple nutsedge. In contrast, SF + Pic was as efficacious or more efficacious on purple nutsedge than the industry standards, including 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D) plus Pic and metam potassium. None of the fumigant treatments visually injured tomato plants, stunted growth, or adversely affected tomato yield. In one of the four tomato seasons, tomato plants growing in plots fumigated with SF + Pic resulted in taller tomato plants and higher markable yields. Results indicate that soil fumigation with SF + Pic is safe on plastic-mulched tomato and effectively controls purple nutsedge.

Nomenclature: 1,3-dichloropropene; chloropicrin; sulfuryl fluoride; metam potassium; purple nutsedge; Cyperus rotundus L.; tomato; Solanum lycopersicum L.

Field experiments were conducted from 2017 to 2019 to determine the tolerance of carinata to several preemergence and postemergence herbicides. Preliminary screenings identified herbicides that caused large variation on carinata injury, indicating the potential for selectivity. Dose-response field studies were conducted to quantify the tolerance of carinata to select herbicides. Diuron applied preemergence at rates of 280 g ai ha^–1 or higher reduced carinata population density 54% to 84% compared to the nontreated control. In certain locations, clomazone applied preemergence caused minor injury with an acceptable level of carinata tolerance and only doses above 105 g ai ha^–1 caused yield reductions. Napropamide doses of 2,856 g ai ha^–1 or higher applied preemergence caused at least 25% injury to carinata; however, the damage was not severe enough to reduce yields. Simazine applied postemergence at rates above 1,594 g ai ha^–1 caused 50% or more injury, resulting in yield losses ranging from 0% to 95% depending on location. Clopyralid applied postemergence at 2,512 g ai ha^–1 caused 25% injury with relative yield reductions, which varied across locations. The present study identified clomazone and napropamide applied preemergence, and clopyralid applied postemergence as potential herbicides for weed control in carinata. In contrast, diuron, simazine, metribuzin, imazethapyr, and chlorimuron caused high levels of carinata mortality and can be used to control volunteer carinata plants in rotational crops.

Nomenclature: chlorimuron; clomazone; clopyralid; diuron; imazethapyr; napropamide; simazine; carinata, Brassica carinata A. Braun.

XtendFlex^™ cotton with resistance to glyphosate, glufosinate, and dicamba may become available in Australia. Resistance to these herbicides enables two additional modes of action to be applied in crop. The double-knock strategy, typically glyphosate followed by paraquat, has been a successful tactic for control of glyphosate-resistant cotton in fallow situations in Australia. Glufosinate is a contact herbicide and may be useful as the second herbicide in a double knock for use in XtendFlex^™ cotton crops. We tested the effectiveness of glufosinate applied at intervals of 1, 3, 7, and 10 d after initial applications of glyphosate, dicamba, clethodim, and glyphosate mixtures with dicamba or clethodim on glyphosate-resistant and glyphosate-susceptible populations of flaxleaf fleabane, common sowthistle, feather fingergrass, windmill grass, and junglerice. Effective treatments for flaxleaf fleabane with 100% control were dicamba and glyphosate+dicamba followed by glufosinate independent of the interval between applications. Common sowthistle was effectively controlled in Experiment 1 by all treatments. However, in Experiment 2, effective treatments were dicamba and glyphosate+dicamba followed by glufosinate (99.3% to 100% control). Timing of the follow-up glufosinate did not affect the control achieved. Consistent control of feather fingergrass was achieved with glyphosate, clethodim, or glyphosate+clethodim followed by glufosinate at 7-d and 10-d intervals (99.7% to 100% control). Control of feather fingergrass was inconsistent. The best treatment for windmill grass was glyphosate+clethodim followed by glufosinate 10 d later (99.8% to 100% control). Junglerice was effectively controlled with all treatments except for glyphosate on the glyphosate-resistant population. Additional in-crop use of glufosinate and dicamba should be beneficial for weed management in XtendFlex^™ cotton crops, when using the double knock tactic with glufosinate. For effective herbicide resistance management, it is important that these herbicides be used in addition to, rather than substitution for, existing weed management tactics.

Nomenclature: Glyphosate; glufosinate; dicamba; cotton; Gossypium hirsutum L.; flaxleaf fleabane; Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist; common sowthistle; Sonchus oleraceus L.; feather fingergrass; Chloris virgata Sw.; windmill grass; Chloris truncata R. Br.; junglerice; Echinochloa colona (L.) Link

Junglerice and feather fingergrass are major problematic weeds in the summer sorghum cropping areas of Australia. This study aimed to investigate the growth and seed production of junglerice and feather fingergrass in crop-free (fallow) conditions and under competition with sorghum planted in 50-cm and 100-cm row spacings at three sorghum planting and weed emergence timings. Results revealed that junglerice and feather fingergrass had greater biomass in early planting (November 11) compared to late planting times (January 11). Under fallow conditions, seed production of junglerice ranged from 12,380 to 20,280 seeds plant^–1, with the highest seed production for the December 11 and lowest for the January 11 planting. Seed production of feather fingergrass under fallow conditions ranged from 90,030 to 143,180 seeds plant^–1. Seed production of feather fingergrass under crop-free (fallow) conditions was similar for November 11 and December 11 planting times, but higher for the January 11 planting. Sorghum crop competition at both row spacings reduced the seed production of junglerice and feather fingergrass >75% compared to non-crop fallow. Narrow row spacing (50 cm) in early and mid-planted sorghum (November 11 and December 11) reduced the biomass of junglerice to a greater extent (88% to 92% over fallow-grown plants) compared to wider row spacing (100 cm). Narrow row spacing was found superior in reducing biomass of feather fingergrass compared to wider row spacing. Our results demonstrate that sorghum crops can substantially reduce biomass and seed production of junglerice and feather fingergrass through crop competition compared with growth in fallow conditions. Narrow row spacing (50 cm) was found superior to wider row spacing (100 cm) in terms of weed suppression. These results suggest that narrow row spacing and late planting time of sorghum crops can strengthen an integrated weed management program against these weeds by reducing weed growth and seed production.

Nomenclature: Junglerice; Echinochloa colona (L.) Link; feather fingergrass; Chloris virgata Sw; sorghum; Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench

In Mississippi, rice reproduction and ripening often overlaps with soybean maturation, creating potential for herbicide exposure onto rice from desiccants applied to soybeans. Six independent studies were conducted concurrently at the Delta Research and Extension Center in Stoneville, MS, from 2016 to 2018 to determine the response of rice to sublethal concentrations of soybean desiccants during rice reproductive and ripening growth stages. Studies included the desiccants paraquat, glyphosate, saflufenacil, sodium chlorate, paraquat + saflufenacil, and paraquat + sodium chlorate applied at a rate equal to 1/10th of Mississippi recommendations. Treatments were applied at five different rice growth stages, beginning at 50% heading––defined as 0 d after heading (DAH)––with subsequent applications at 1-wk intervals (0, 7, 14, 21, and 28 DAH), up to harvest. Injury was observed 7 d after application (DAA), with five of six desiccants at all application timings. No injury was observed with glyphosate application across all rating intervals. Rough rice grain yield following all glyphosate applications was reduced by >6%. In the studies evaluating paraquat, injury ranged from 5% to 18% at all evaluations, regardless of application timing. Rough rice grain yield was reduced >12% 0 to 21 DAH, following paraquat application. Similar trends were observed with paraquat + saflufenacil and paraquat + sodium chlorate, with rice exhibiting yield decreases >6% following an application 0 to 14 and 0 to 21 DAH, respectively. In studies evaluating saflufenacil and sodium chlorate, rough rice grain yield was >95% of the untreated across all application timings Yield component trends closely resembled reductions observed in rough rice grain yield. Reductions in head rice yield were >5% following applications of paraquat or paraquat + saflufenacil 0 to 14 and 0 to 21 DAH, respectively. Late-season exposure to sublethal concentrations of desiccant from 50% heading (0 DAH) to 28 DAH has an impact on rough rice grain yield, yield components, and head rice yield.

Nomenclature: Glyphosate; paraquat; saflufenacil; sodium chlorate; rice; Oryza sativa L.; soybean; Glycine max (L.) Merr.

Tiafenacil is a new nonselective, protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase–inhibiting pyrimidinedione herbicide that is under consideration for registration to control grass and broadleaf weeds in corn, soybean, wheat, cotton, and other crops prior to crop emergence. The sensitivity of dry beans to tiafenacil is not known. Four field experiments were completed at Exeter and Ridgetown, ON, Canada, during the 2019 and 2020 growing seasons, to determine the sensitivity of azuki, kidney, small red, and white beans to tiafenacil applied preemergence (PRE) at 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 g ai ha^–1. Tiafenacil applied at 100 g ai ha^–1 caused 5% or less injury to azuki, kidney, small red, and white beans: 0% to 3% injury to azuki bean; 1% to 5% injury to kidney bean; and 1% to 4% injury to both small red bean and white bean. Tiafenacil applied PRE at 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 g ai ha^–1 caused up to 1%, 4%, 4%, and 5% visible dry bean injury, respectively, but had no negative effect on other measured growth parameters including seed yield. Crop injury was generally greatest when tiafenacil was appled at the 100 g ai ha^–1 rate in dry beans. Generally, kidney, small red, and white bean were more sensitive to tiafenacil than azuki bean. Dry bean injury was persistent and increased with time with the greatest injury observed 8 wk after emergence. Tiafenacil applied PRE can be a useful addition to the current strategies to control grass and broadleaf weeds, especially glyphosate-resistant horseweed and amaranth species prior to bean emergence.

Nomenclature: Tiafenacil; dry bean, Phaseolus vulgaris; azuki bean, Vigna angularis

Although Palmer amaranth is currently not widespread in most dry edible bean–producing states in the United States, it is widespread in western Nebraska, a major dry edible bean–producing region. There is currently a lack of research on management and biology of Palmer amaranth within dry edible bean production. The objective of this study was to quantify the impact of season-long Palmer amaranth interference on yield of dry edible bean and seed production of Palmer amaranth. A field study was conducted in Scottsbluff, NE, in 2020 and 2021. Palmer amaranth interference at densities of 0, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5, 1, and 2 plants m^–1 row of dry edible bean was evaluated. Palmer amaranth interference reduced dry edible bean yield by 77% at a weed density of 2 plants m^–1 row compared to the weed-free control, and a 5% yield reduction threshold was estimated to occur at a Palmer amaranth density of 0.02 plants m^–1 row. Yield reduction occurred primarily through a reduction in the number of pods per plant as Palmer amaranth density increased. Palmer amaranth plants produced 91,000 to 376,000 seeds per plant depending on densities, and as many as 140,000 seeds m^–2. Study results will help farmers and other stakeholders estimate Palmer amaranth interference within their fields, and may help justify the economic cost of incorporating additional Palmer amaranth management practices.

Nomenclature: Palmer amaranth; Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson; dry edible bean; Phaseolus vulgaris L.

A chloroacetamide herbicide by application timing factorial experiment was conducted in 2017 and 2018 in Mississippi to investigate chloroacetamide use in a dicamba-based Palmer amaranth management program in cotton production. Herbicides used were S-metolachlor or acetochlor, and application timings were preemergence, preemergence followed by (fb) early postemergence, preemergence fb late postemergence, early postemergence alone, late postemergence alone, and early postemergence fb late postemergence. Dicamba was included in all preemergence applications, and dicamba plus glyphosate was included with all postemergence applications. Differences in cotton and weed response due to chloroacetamide type were minimal, and cotton injury at 14 d after late postemergence application was less than 10% for all application timings. Late-season weed control was reduced up to 30% and 53% if chloroacetamide application occurred preemergence or late postemergence only, respectively. Late-season weed densities were minimized if multiple applications were used instead of a single application. Cotton height was reduced by up to 23% if a single application was made late postemergence relative to other application timings. Chloroacetamide application at any timing except preemergence alone minimized late-season weed biomass. Yield was maximized by any treatment involving multiple applications or early postemergence alone, whereas applications preemergence or late postemergence alone resulted in up to 56% and 27% yield losses, respectively. While no yield loss was reported by delaying the first of sequential applications until early postemergence, forgoing a preemergence application is not advisable given the multiple factors that may delay timely postemergence applications such as inclement weather.

Nomenclature: Acetochlor; dicamba; glyphosate; S-metolachlor; Palmer amaranth, Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson; cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L.

BASF Corp. has developed p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) inhibitor–resistant cotton and soybean that will allow growers to use isoxaflutole in future weed management programs. In 2019 and 2020, a multi-state non-crop research project was conducted to examine weed control following isoxaflutole applied preemergence alone and with several tank-mix partners at high and low labeled rates. At 28 d after treatment (DAT), Palmer amaranth was controlled ≥95% at six of seven locations with isoxaflutole plus the high rate of diuron or fluridone. These same combinations provided the greatest control 42 DAT at four of seven locations. Where large crabgrass was present, isoxaflutole plus the high rate of diuron, fluridone, pendimethalin, or S-metolachlor or isoxaflutole plus the low rate of fluometuron controlled large crabgrass ≥95% in two of three locations 28 DAT. In two of three locations, isoxaflutole plus the high rate of pendimethalin or S-metolachlor improved large crabgrass control 42 DAT when compared to isoxaflutole alone. At 21 DAT, morningglory was controlled ≥95% at all locations with isoxaflutole plus the high rate of diuron and at three of four locations with isoxaflutole plus the high rate of fluometuron. At 42 DAT at all locations, isoxaflutole plus diuron or fluridone and isoxaflutole plus the high rate of fluometuron improved morningglory control compared to isoxaflutole alone. These results suggest that isoxaflutole applied preemergence alone or in tank mixture is efficacious on a number of cross-spectrum annual weeds in cotton, and extended weed control may be achieved when isoxaflutole is tank-mixed with several soil-residual herbicides.

Nomenclature: Diuron; fluometuron; fluridone; phydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase; isoxaflutole; S-metolachlor; pendimethalin; large crabgrass; Digitaria sanguinalis L.; morningglory; Ipomoea spp.; Palmer amaranth; Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats.; cotton; Gossypium hirsutum L.; soybean; Glycine max (L.) Merr.

Field studies were conducted in Alabama in 2016 and 2017 to determine the effect of postemergence applications of glufosinate alone and glufosinate applied with S-metolachlor, using two different nozzle types, on LibertyLink^®, XtendFlex^®, and WideStrike^® cotton growth and yield. Two applications of glufosinate at 0.6 kg ha^–1, and glufosinate with S-metolachlor at 1.39 kg ha^–1 were applied to each cotton cultivar at the four-leaf and eight-leaf growth stages using a flatfan and Turbo TeeJet Induction^® nozzle. Visual estimates of cotton injury were evaluated after each application, as well as yield. No differences in yield within each cotton cultivar were observed for either year. Visible injury was higher for WideStrike cotton than LibertyLink or XtendFlex cultivars. On average, glufosinate applied with S-metolachlor resulted in greater injury than glufosinate applied alone. In LibertyLink cotton, applications made with TTI nozzles resulted in greater injury than flatfan nozzles. However, cotton injury was transient and did not affect cotton yields. These data indicate that applications of glufosinate and glufosinate applied with S-metolachlor, at 0.6 kg ha^–1 and 1.39 kg ha^–1, respectively, with either a flatfan or TTI nozzle, can have no detrimental effect on cotton growth or yield.

Nomenclature: Glufosinate; S-metolachlor; cotton; Gossypium hirsutum L.

The critical period for weed control (CPWC) adds value to integrated weed management by identifying the period during which weeds need to be controlled to avoid yield losses exceeding a defined threshold. However, the traditional application of the CPWC does not identify the timing of control needed for weeds that emerge late in the critical period. In this study, CPWC models were developed from field data in high-yielding cotton crops during three summer seasons from 2005 to 2008, using the mimic weed, common sunflower, at densities of two to 20 plants per square meter. Common sunflower plants were introduced at up to 450 growing degree days (GDD) after crop planting and removed at successive 200 GDD intervals after introduction. The CPWC models were described using extended Gompertz and logistic functions that included weed density, time of weed introduction, and time of weed removal (logistic function only) in the relationships. The resulting models defined the CPWC for late-emerging weeds, identifying a period after weed emergence before weed control was required to prevent yield loss exceeding the yield-loss threshold. When weeds emerged in sufficient numbers toward the end of the critical period, the model predicted that crop yield loss resulting from competition by these weeds would not exceed the yield-loss threshold until well after the end of the CPWC. These findings support the traditional practice of ensuring weeds are controlled before crop canopy closure, with later weed control inputs used as required.

Nomenclature: common sunflower; Helianthus annuus L. HELAN; cotton; Gossypium hirsutum L. GOSHI

Glyphosate is the most widely used herbicide in the United States; however, concern is escalating about increasing residues of glyphosate and its metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in soil. There is a lack of scientific literature examining the response of cover crops to soil residues of glyphosate or AMPA. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the impact of glyphosate or AMPA residues in silty clay loam soil on emergence, growth, and biomass of cover crops, including cereal rye, crimson clover, field pea, hairy vetch, and winter wheat, as well as their germination in a 0.07% (0.7 g L^-1) solution of AMPA or glyphosate. Greenhouse studies were conducted at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln to determine the dose response of broadleaf and grass cover crops to soil-applied glyphosate or AMPA. The results indicated that soil treated with glyphosate or AMPA up to 105 mg ae kg^–1 of soil had no effect on the emergence, growth, above-ground biomass, and root biomass of any of the cover crop species tested. To evaluate the impact of AMPA or glyphosate on the seed germination of cover crop species, seeds were soaked in Petri plates filled with a 0.7 g L^-1 solution of AMPA or glyphosate. There was no effect of AMPA on seed germination of any of the cover crop species tested. Seed germination of crimson clover and field pea in a 0.7 g L^-1 solution of glyphosate was comparable to the nontreated control; however, the germination of cereal rye, hairy vetch, and winter wheat was reduced by 48%, 75%, and 66%, respectively, compared to the nontreated control. The results suggested that glyphosate or AMPA up to 105 mg ae kg^–1 in silt clay loam soil is unlikely to cause any negative effect on the evaluated cover crop species.

Nomenclature: Aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA); glyphosate; cereal rye; Secale cereale L.; crimson clover; Trifolium incarnatum L.; field pea or Austrian winter pea; Pisum sativum L.; hairy vetch; Vicia villosa Roth; winter wheat; Triticum aestivum L.

Rush skeletonweed is an invasive weed in winter wheat (WW)/summer fallow (SF) rotations in the low to intermediate rainfall areas of the inland Pacific Northwest. Standard weed control practices are not effective, resulting in additional SF tillage or herbicide applications. The objective of this field research was to identify herbicide treatments that control rush skeletonweed during the SF phase of the WW/SF rotation. Trials were conducted near LaCrosse, WA, in 2017–2019 and 2018–2020, and near Hay, WA, in 2018–2020. The LaCrosse 2017–2019 trial was in tilled SF; the other two trials were in no-till SF. Fall postharvest applications in October included clopyralid, clopyralid plus 2,4-D, clopyralid plus 2,4-D plus chlorsulfuron plus metsulfuron, aminopyralid, picloram, and glyphosate plus 2,4-D. Spring treatments of clopyralid, aminopyralid, and glyphosate were applied to rush skeletonweed rosettes. Summer treatments of 2,4-D were applied when rush skeletonweed initiated bolting. Plant density was monitored through the SF phase in all plots. Picloram provided complete control of rush skeletonweed through June at all three locations. Fall-applied clopyralid, clopyralid plus 2,4-D, and clopyralid followed by 2,4-D in summer reduced rush skeletonweed through June at the two LaCrosse sites but were ineffective at Hay. In August, just prior to WW seeding, the greatest reductions in rush skeletonweed density were achieved with picloram and fall-applied clopyralid at the two LaCrosse sites. No treatments provided effective control into August at Hay. Wheat yield in the next crop compared to the nontreated control was reduced only at one LaCrosse site by a spring-applied aminopyralid treatment, otherwise no other reductions were found. Long-term control of rush skeletonweed in WW/SF may be achieved by a combination of fall application of picloram, after wheat harvest, followed by an effective burn-down treatment in August prior to WW seeding.

Nomenclature: 2; 4-D; aminopyralid; chlorsulfuron; clopyralid; glyphosate; metsulfuron; picloram; rush skeletonweed; Chondrilla juncea L.; winter wheat; Triticum aestivum L.

There is a Reaper, whose name is Death, And, with his sickle keen, He reaps the bearded grain at a breath, And the flowers that grow between. – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, “The Reaper and the Flowers”

I love sleep. My life has a tendency to fall apart when I'm awake, you know. – Ernest Hemingway