Mexico's wildlife has been impacted by human land use changes and socioeconomic and political factors since before the Spanish conquest in 1521. Presently, it has been estimated that more than 60% of the land area has been severely degraded. Mexico ranks in the top 3 countries in biodiversity, is a plant and faunal dispersal corridor, and is a crucial element in the conservation and management of North American wildlife. Wildlife management prerogatives and regulatory powers reside in the federal government with states relegated a minimum role. The continuous shifting of federal agencies responsible for wildlife management with the concomitant lack of adequate federal funding has not permitted the establishment of a robust wildlife program. In addition, wildlife conservation has been further impacted by a failure to establish landowner incentives, power struggles over user rights, resistance to change, and lack of trust and experience in protecting and managing Mexico's wildlife. We believe future strategies for wildlife programs must take into account Mexico's highly diversified mosaic of ecosystems, cultures, socioeconomic levels, and land tenure and political systems. The private sector, along with communal properties, in cooperation with federal and municipal governments, nongovernmental organizations, corporations, and international agencies may have the greatest potential of sustainable management of Mexico's wildlife. The present federal wildlife management strategy is an initial positive effort because it promotes participatory wildlife conservation by key stakeholders. We identify the aspects of this strategy that we believe will be needed to establish a sustainable program to manage Mexico's wildlife.

Herbivory by wild and domestic ungulates is a chronic disturbance that can have dramatic effects on vegetation dynamics. Herbivory effects, however, are not easily predicted under different combinations of episodic disturbance such as fire, timber harvest, drought, and insect defoliation. This lack of predictability poses a substantial obstacle to effective management of ungulate herbivory. Traditional models of vegetation transition in forested ecosystems have ignored the influences of ungulate herbivory, while research on effects of herbivory have typically excluded other disturbances. Of the 82 contemporary studies on ungulate herbivory we examined, only 15 (18%) considered the interactions of herbivory with episodic disturbances. Moreover, only 26 (32%) evaluated vegetation response to ungulate herbivory beyond the simplistic treatment levels of herbivory versus no herbivory. Only 31 (38%) used a repeated-measures design of sampling responses over 3 or more time periods. Finally, just 7 (9%) explicitly made inferences to large landscapes such as watersheds, which are often used for management planning. We contend that useful landscape research on herbivory must examine the interactions of ungulate grazing with other disturbance regimes at spatial extents of interest to forest and rangeland managers and under varying ungulate densities and species. We identify herbivory models that could accommodate such information for forested landscapes in western North America. Such models are essential for identifying knowledge gaps, designing future studies, and validating relations of ungulate herbivory on landscapes where episodic disturbances are common, such as those of western North America.

We used infrared-activated video cameras and direct observation to evaluate the effects of 2-wire high-tensile electric fence (2-WF), 3-wire high-tensile electric fence (3-WF), and 4-wire high-tensile electric fence (4-WF) designs on elk (Cervus elaphus), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) movements. In addition, high-tensile electric fences (HTEF) were tested for their effectiveness on domestic cattle (Bos taurus; 2-WF and 3-WF) and bison (Bison bison; 3-WF and 4-WF). Shock energy on the test fences ranged from 0.5–4.5 J. The wildlife species we studied were physically capable of crossing all of the fence designs. However, difficulty in crossing the fences varied between species and designs. The elk and mule deer observed were more successful (100%) at crossing the 2-WF than pronghorn (51%). Mule deer (95%) and pronghorn (91%) were more successful at crossing 4-WF than elk (59%). The majority of elk (79%), mule deer (93%), and pronghorn (97%) successfully crossed 3-WF. Electric shock did not appear to affect elk, mule deer, or pronghorn at a charge of 0.5–4.5 J, and overall <1% were shocked when interacting with HTEF. For domestic cattle, 2-WF was 99% effective in calf separation tests and 100% effective for bull separation. Bison were successfully contained by both 3-WF (100%) and 4-WF (99.8% [˜100%]). Our data suggest the 3-WF design overall was the least restrictive for elk, mule deer, and pronghorn and effectively confined domestic cattle and bison.

In mouflon (Ovis gmelini musimon × Ovis sp.) populations, most age-related ecological studies have used morphological characteristics to determine age categories in the field although the validity of this approach remains largely untested. We estimated error rates in age determination from observations of known-age mouflon in southern France. Based on repeated observations of 163 animals, we estimated the sex-, age- and time-variations in error rates. We showed that the age-related pattern of error was the same for both sexes and was not time dependent. Male (7.4% [6.7; 11.1] _CI95%) and female (6.7% [3.2; 12.9] _CI95%) lambs had a low and similar probability (P = 0.61) of error, whereas older mouflon, and more females (53.2% [43.2; 62.5] _CI95%) than males (27.1% [19.2; 34.5] _CI95%, P ≤ 0.001), had a high probability to be misclassified. Over and above the skill of the observers, the morphological criteria used to discriminate age categories probably account for these high and sex-specific error rates. To correct these errors, we recommend that: 1) criteria used in the field be tested on a sample of known-age animals from the studied population; or 2) field aging be restricted to well-defined age categories such as lambs, ewes, and rams.

Development of management plans for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) requires that states examine how multiple biological and regulatory factors (i.e., season timing, hunting access, bag limits) influence populations. In the southeastern United States, harvest restrictions often exceed state regulations on private lands. Thus, better information regarding harvest management on private lands is needed by wildlife agencies when developing management plans. We received responses from 1,184 white-tailed deer hunting camps registered in the Arkansas Deer Camp Program (DCP) to evaluate management practices used on private lands in Arkansas. We found that 60% of respondents used harvest restrictions in excess of state regulations. Most differences in harvest restrictions were attributed to involvement in Quality Deer Management (QDM) programs. Harvest restrictions also differed by property ownership class and deer management unit (DMU). Hunting camps were more likely to be under QDM when working with Arkansas Game and Fish Commission (AGFC) biologists. Camps under QDM were more likely to use restrictions limiting harvest of adult males. Aggregate effects of localized management (e.g., age- and sex-specific harvest) may influence population structure over broad geographic scales. Therefore, comprehensive management planning and evaluation of white-tailed deer harvest regulations must consider the multitude of harvest practices implemented by private land managers. We recommend that state wildlife management agencies conduct population studies to determine impacts of localized harvest restrictions on population dynamics occurring at broader geographic areas.

Eradication of bovine tuberculosis (TB) from free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) requires mortality rates of infected deer exceed the rate of new infection. Efforts to reduce TB transmission in Michigan, USA, are based on 2 assumptions: 1) deer mortality may be increased through recreational hunting, and 2) encounter rates between infected and noninfected deer may be reduced by prohibiting baiting and supplemental feeding. Spatial correlation of TB-infected deer and supplemental feeding sites detected using aerial surveys validated a ban on artificial feeding in Michigan. Similar analysis could not be used to evaluate the effects of a baiting ban because bait distribution was unknown. Furthermore, a ban on deer baiting could confound attempts to increase deer mortality through reduced hunter participation or efficacy. We reviewed the process used to evaluate a strategy for regulating bait use by hunters. This review included an assessment of 5 factors: statewide spatial analysis of apparent TB prevalence, deer intraspecific interactions at bait sites, effects of bait on hunter harvest rates, impacts of disease presence and practice of eradication efforts on hunting participation in the infected area, and input from law enforcement personnel. Our analysis suggested that restricting baiting to a limited, consistent region incurred less biological risk than allowing bait to be used statewide and less political risk than a statewide ban.

Establishing hunting regulations that facilitate population reduction is an important white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) management strategy. Increased opportunity to hunt antlerless deer and use of bait to attract are 2 strategies widely used by managers to increase harvests. While facilitating harvest, baiting deer also may increase disease transmission, create hunter conflict, or adversely impact other resources. Management for reduced deer populations requires that costs associated with baiting (e.g., disease transmission risk) be weighed against benefits (e.g., increased hunter efficiency). We quantified the effects of baiting on Wisconsin's firearm and archery deer harvests relative to supplemental antlerless-only firearm seasons (SAFS) by modeling changes in the 2002–2003 harvests as functions of deer density, population goals, supplemental antlerless seasons, and a partial ban on baiting in 2003. With other variables held constant, the 2003 bait ban equated to roughly 0.1 deer/km² fewer deer harvested by archers (antlerless and antlered). The reduction was offset by an equivalent increase in harvest by deer hunters with firearms. Thus, the net impact of a baiting ban was negligible. In 2003, SAFS resulted in an increase of 1.2 antlerless deer/km² killed even though a decrease of 1.6 antlerless deer/km² killed was associated with SAFS in 2002. Our analysis suggests that creating additional opportunities for hunting antlerless deer with firearms was more effective at achieving herd reduction than baiting.

Estimating game harvest is among the most important activities of wildlife management agencies. For many state agencies, postseason hunter surveys are the basis for obtaining estimates of harvest. However, the questionnaire design and the questions asked can have a great effect on the accuracy of the harvest estimates. The purpose of this paper is to present alternative models for analyzing postseason hunter questionnaire data. Our model extends the White (1993) approach by incorporating local information from both successful and unsuccessful hunters in cases where that information is available from postseason surveys. Our approach relaxes 2 assumptions: 1) the probability that a hunter reports the area hunted is the same across areas and 2) all hunters have the same probability of success regardless of area hunted. Unless assumptions regarding common harvest rates across areas can be validated a priori, questionnaires should be designed to provide that geographic information. This information should be obtained from both successful and unsuccessful hunters. Previously, managers were primarily concerned whether nonrespondents had the same harvest success as survey respondents. We argue that this concern should be extended to include consideration of differences in reporting rates by geographic area as well. Agency goals, data requirements, and possible differences in harvest rates by region must, therefore, guide the design of hunter harvest questionnaires.

We evaluated vaginal implant transmitters (VITs) as a technique for locating neonatal mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) fawns. We implanted VITs in 29 pregnant, wild female mule deer in March 2003 and in 20 pregnant, captive mule deer in March 2004. We found no wild fawns at the birth site using VITs. Only 12 of 19 VITs were dropped in beds, and none could be confirmed as birth sites. In contrast, captive does shed 17 of 19 VITs at the birth site during parturition. Two were shed prematurely, and signals of 2 VITs failed. Antenna length, depth of insertion, and length of vaginal canal had no effect on the likelihood of premature shedding. Using aerial telemetry, we detected implanted VITs from distances of up to 1.2 km and expelled VITs from up to 2 km away, whereas from the ground, signal range was <0.6 km. Labor during fawning lasted an average of 121 min, and the average fawn began standing 35 min and nursing 43 min after birth. Six of 17 of captive females left the birth site within 6 hr of parturition, and wild fawns moved up to 0.6 km from the birth site within 24 hr. During the first 5 days after birth, fawns nursed on average every 3.34 hr. We recommend when using VITs to locate neonatal mule deer fawns near the birth site, VIT signals should be monitored 2–3 times a day from within 0.5 km on ground or 2 km from the air.

Using current methods of age determination, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from the same cohort are classified as 1.5-year-old deer when actual age may vary by 6 or more months. We measured mandibular tooth row length (mm) on mandible impressions of 41 (23 males and 18 females) known-age captive white-tailed deer to develop an aging model that would estimate age in days. To test the model, each month from 12 to 24 months, we measured dentitions of 34 (19 males, 15 females) known-age captive white-tailed deer. We found that mandibular tooth row length was a strong predictor of age for both males (r² = 0.93; P ≤ 0.0001) and females (r² = 0.92; P ≤ 0.0001). For males and females, respectively, the equations that predicted age (days) were ln (age) = −4.34 2.45 ln (mandibular tooth row length in mm) and ln (age) = −4.62 2.54 ln (mandibular tooth row length in mm). The models predicted >50% of test jaws for males from 14 to 24 months and >60% of test jaws for females from 16–24 months within 7 days of actual age. Peak accuracy occurred at 18 months for males and 19–21 months of age for females. These models complement current aging methods and could be used by wildlife biologists in the field to age hunter-harvested deer ≤24 months.

Wildlife managers frequently use estimates of population densities to guide ungulate management. Because it is nearly impossible to obtain accurate counts, these estimates are based on indices. Thus, managers continue to seek new index methods that could help them better monitor and manage ungulate populations. In this paper we examine the usefulness of hind foot length as an ecological indicator of density dependence for monitoring roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) populations. We used the hind feet of all roe deer shot over an entire province for 13 years that were collected by wildlife managers from the Tarn Hunter Federation (France) to conduct this research. Information on the sex, date, and shooting locality were recorded by hunters, and animal age was determined by wildlife managers. We divided the province into 3 biogeographical regions and investigated the relationship between hind foot length of roe deer fawns, spring and summer climate (temperature and precipitation), and an index of deer density (number of shot roe deer per square kilometer) by region using linear models. Hind foot length differed between sexes and between regions. In 2 out of 3 regions, we observed a negative relationship between hind foot length and our index of roe deer density. Further, hind foot length was lower when springs (but not summers) were cold or wet. We interpreted these trends in relation to changes in population density and habitat structure. We concluded that hind foot length is a useful indicator for assessing the density-dependent relationship between roe deer populations and their environment and for monitoring population trends.

In the protected areas of Bhutan, crop damage by wildlife impacts the livelihoods of local agropastoralists. We interviewed a stratified-random sample of 274 farmers living in the Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park in an attempt to better understand and manage growing concerns. Most of the farmers interviewed suffered major financial losses annually due to crop damage by wild pigs (Sus scrofa), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), macaques (Macaca mulatta), and sambars (Cervus unicolor). All respondents reported crop losses to wild animals, and wild pig was the most common cause (97%). Farmers responded by implementing nonlethal methods such as guarding, fencing, and performing religious rituals to protect their crops. Growers blamed the park's conservation policies for the high level of reported losses. Crop damage, especially by macaques, increased after establishment of the park in 1993 and implementation of the Forest and Nature Conservation Act of 1995. Management actions should focus on increasing tolerance among farmers and reducing severe losses caused by wild pigs and macaques.

In response to increases in human–wildlife conflicts in urban and suburban environments, many states have established nuisance wildlife control operator (NWCO) programs. Criticism has been leveled at such programs for insufficient emphasis on nonlethal means, particularly the exclusion and translocation of nuisance small and medium-sized mammals. We determined den site selection of lactating raccoons (Procyon lotor) after exclusion and subsequent release from a human residence. Fifteen of 20 females extracted from suburban residences returned to another house at least once. Of the den sites selected 2 months postrelease, 59% were in man-made structures. Our data suggest that most female raccoons removed and excluded from human dwellings will select another house if released on site. We contend this behavior is facilitated by suburban homeowners who fail to take the initiative to prevent entry of wildlife into their homes.

Over-abundant populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) create agricultural and human health and safety issues. The increased economic damage associated with locally overabundant deer populations accentuates the need for efficient techniques to mitigate the losses. Although red lasers can be an efficient tool for reducing damage caused by birds, they are not effective for deer because deer cannot detect wavelengths in the red portion of the spectrum. No research has been conducted to determine if lasers of lower wavelengths could function as frightening devices for deer. We evaluated a green laser (534 nm, 120 mW) and 2 models of blue lasers (473 nm, 5 mW and 15 mW) to determine their efficacy in dispersing deer at night. Deer were no more likely to flee during a green or blue laser encounter than during control encounters. The green and blue lasers we tested did not frighten deer.

In 2004 I concluded that the black bear (Ursus americanus) supplemental feeding program was an effective, nonlethal damage control tool to protect conifers during the spring in western Washington, USA (Ziegltrum 2004). Consequently, I analyzed the costs of the supplemental feeding program, which is used for about 10 years from stand age 15 to 25 and the costs of accepting bear tree damage. One Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stand with known yield data served as a model. I assumed 15, 25, and 35% tree damage by bears in this stand at age 15 and allowed the stand to grow to 35-, 40-, and 45-year rotations. I performed present value calculations (PV) for the costs of the feeding program to determine if it was the best expenditure for the Animal Damage Control Program (ADCP) in comparison. For the sensitivity analysis, I used 5, 6, and 7% interest rates. I found that the costs of feeding bears for 2.5 months annually were always lower than the costs of tree damage by bears. Therefore, I concluded that the supplemental feeding program was a cost-effective damage control tool.

Most research describing the characteristics and behaviors of waterfowl hunters has assumed this group of sportsmen to be relatively homogenous. Using data obtained through a mail survey conducted in 2000, we developed a typology of Minnesota waterfowl hunters based on experience preferences. This type of information may assist wildlife managers in making regulatory recommendations that increase hunter satisfaction, and hence, participation. We used cluster analysis to group hunters into 5 types. We identified 2 types as enthusiasts and 3 as participants. Enthusiasts hunted more days and placed greater importance on almost all experience items than other respondents. We characterized participant hunters as longtime waterfowl-hunting participants, less-engaged waterfowl-hunting participants, and recreational–casual waterfowl-hunting participants. Longtime and less-engaged waterfowl hunters tended to be older than all other respondents. We suggest that modeling hunter participation using experience preferences and satisfaction also may enhance the harvest-management process.

An understanding of survival and underlying causes of mortality is essential to the development of effective management strategies for the mottled duck (Anas fulvigula) in Florida. From radiotelemetry data we estimated season-specific survival rates for the entire annual cycle, cause-specific mortality rates, and annual survival rates. We also tested for variation in survival in relation to year and period of the annual cycle. Our results suggest a strong temporal influence on survival of adult female mottled ducks, both within and among years. We found variation among years in the influence of various mortality agents, with alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), raptors, mammals, and human hunters being the principal mortality factors. Our results also suggest a link between surface water conditions within the Upper St. Johns River Basin (USJRB) and surrounding areas and survival. Agencies managing water and wildlife should be aware of this relationship and consider potential detrimental effects to mottled duck survival.

The North American lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) population has declined since the mid-1980s. The acquisition of nutrient reserves during spring migration may play a role in explaining that trend. We studied nutrient-reserve dynamics of lesser scaup collected during spring at 3 major stopover sites and assessed whether reserves of birds on the lower Great Lakes (LGL) differed from those at other staging (or breeding) areas. At lakes Ontario and St. Clair, males had larger fat reserves than females, but no other substantial sex-related differences were observed in fat, protein, or mineral reserve levels of lesser scaup. Protein in males and mineral reserves of both sexes at lakes Erie and St. Clair did not change throughout spring. Male fat reserves remained constant at Lake Erie and increased at Lake St. Clair, whereas female fat and protein reserves increased at both stopover sites. Patterns of fat and protein dynamics in males partly may be due to energetic costs of courtship and pair-bond maintenance. However, maintenance and accumulation of fat reserves in both sexes while on the LGL is important for impending migration and subsequent reproduction. Female lesser scaup staging on the LGL had fat reserves comparable to, or slightly higher than, those reported in other studies of northern spring-staging and breeding birds. Fat reserves of LGL females, however, were much lower than those reported for birds at another midlatitude stopover site. These comparisons suggest that events occurring on Atlantic Flyway wintering areas or LGL staging areas are potential factors contributing to nutrient-reserve limitation and possibly to observed declines in scaup numbers in North America.

Differential detectability is an issue of great practical importance in bat species (Order Chiroptera) surveys. Bat echolocation recorders increasingly are being used in survey efforts, but recorder-based surveys have not measured differences in detection probability quantitatively. A recently developed avian survey technique uses 2 observers at a site to estimate the probability of detection by comparing birds recorded independently by the 2 observers. We applied this method to bat surveys using remotely operated Anabat echolocation recorders. We placed 2 detectors at each sample point, which were randomly selected from forested habitat within 2 watersheds in Indiana and 2 in Missouri. The first detector was oriented toward the most open area of forest and the second was set 5 m away and oriented toward the most open area that allowed sampling of an area distinct from the first detector. We estimated detection probabilities using the Huggins closed-capture model in program MARK. We compared models of detection probability using the corrected quasi-likelihood Akaike's Information Criterion adjusted for overdispersion (QAIC_c). The best models accounted for detector placement and region but not species. Overall probability of detection for bats using 2 detectors was 0.62 in Indiana and 0.42 in Missouri. Results confirmed that a second detector increased the probability of detecting different species of bats at a site. Future regional comparisons should account for differences in detection probability to avoid biases associated with surveys relying solely on recorded calls.

Bats (Order Chiroptera) often are photographed by automatic cameras with infrared sensors set in forests for wildlife surveys. To facilitate species identification of the photographed bats, we have developed a technique to estimate their approximate size using their shadows. This technique gives unbiased size estimates, but its precision depends on the accuracy of parameters used (camera-position parameters and on-film measurements). Used with due care, this technique could be a useful tool to identify some species of automatically photographed bats. Because this technique is in spreadsheet format, the estimates and their confidence limits are obtained simply by filling in the required parameter values and their possible level of errors.

A status assessment for wildlife species is necessary for many states in the United States with the authority to list species as endangered and threatened. Status may confer legal protection or conservation priority within a state. The methods used to define species status vary across states, but most rely on subjective determinations made by a group of experts. We adapted the Delphi Technique, a systematic method of reaching consensus, to achieve greater objectivity in determining the relative endangerment or stability of a species' population. We used the method to determine the status of birds native to New Jersey by having experts choose a status, enumerate their confidence in it and justify their choice, on forms via mail. We compiled results and sent them back to all participants to review the information anonymously provided by others and vote again on each status based on this information, as well as their own experience and opinion. We continued this process for 4 rounds, reaching consensus on the status of 91% of 283 species in breeding and nonbreeding seasons. We used the results to assign legal status of bird species in the state. We present this as an appropriate technique to attain greater objectivity in species status assessment.

With increasing negative wildlife-related impacts on humans, public expectations of agency roles are transitioning and wildlife managers are becoming more concerned about public acceptance of management interventions, particularly lethal measures. One goal of human dimensions research in wildlife is to provide managers with a better understanding of the relationship among stakeholders' values, beliefs, and acceptance of management actions. We used data obtained from a survey of Alaska residents on managing wolf (Canis lupus) and grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) predation on moose (Alces alces) and caribou (Rangifer tarandus) to explore 2 general questions: 1) is opposition to lethal control of wildlife context-free (an individual is opposed to lethal control regardless of circumstance) or context specific (an individual's support or opposition to lethal control depends on circumstances)? And 2) does perceived impacts of wildlife on humans make a difference in an individual's expression of support or opposition to lethal actions? We found that support for lethal methods for management of wolves and grizzly bears to minimize predation on moose and caribou was influenced by the impact that predation was perceived to have on humans' access to moose and caribou, whether access was a concern primarily for food or recreational hunting. Specifically, respondents were more likely to support the use of lethal methods to control predation in situations where the effect of predation on moose and caribou had the greatest subsequent impact on humans' access to these big game resources. Conversely, lethal control of predators was less likely to be supported in situations where the impact of predators on moose and caribou was perceived to be less severe with respect to human needs. We use the phrase “impact dependency” to highlight the importance of context-specific influences on public evaluations of management actions. Although inherent characteristics of potential management interventions (e.g., relative humaneness, cost, efficiency, etc.) are important considerations in decision making, our findings suggest that researchers and managers also should consider how public support or opposition for a particular management action is influenced by public perceptions of the nature of impacts being experienced by people.

Change-in-ratio (CIR) methods estimate population abundance based on changes in the composition of populations before and after interventions, such as hunter harvest. Change-in-ratio methods offer a cost-effective and efficient alternative to population analysis because the data can be obtained easily. Despite a long history of use and several quantitative advancements, computational requirements have limited the interest and opportunity to use more informative and precise CIR methods. In this paper we illustrate the application of multi-dimensional CIR methods to estimate abundance using program USER (User Specified Estimation Routine), which constructs likelihood models based on multinomial or product multinomial sampling distributions. We discuss multi-class and sequential CIR methods and illustrate how Program USER can be used to calculate maximum likelihood estimates. Our hope is that statistical software such as Program USER promotes awareness and interest in using CIR methods for demographic assessments of wild populations. However, it is important to carefully consider the assumptions of CIR techniques prior to implementation.

Sage-grouse (Centrocercus spp.) are arguably the best known of the many wildlife species that inhabit sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) ecosystems. Lack of standardization in the procedures used to assess sagebrush cover may contribute to inconsistencies in reported habitat requirements for sage-grouse and other wildlife. We compared 3 applications of the line-intercept method for 3 sagebrush taxa. We sampled 2 mountain big sagebrush (A. tridentata vaseyana) sites, 2 Wyoming big sagebrush (A. t. wyomingensis) sites, and 1 black sagebrush (A. nova) site to determine whether the results generated by the 3 methods differed. Percent cover as determined by agency methods was up to 2.6 times greater than that from research applications. Cover differences among techniques were influenced by taxa and site (P ≤ 0.001) because both affected shrub morphology. We believe it will be difficult to identify and achieve wildlife habitat guidelines for minimal sagebrush cover requirements if methodologies are not standardized.

We report a new method of studying brown bear (Ursus arctos) behavior. The method combines the technologies of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM). A GPS–GSM collar on a bear locates itself with the help of a GPS module, while the GSM module sends the location information to the researcher as SMS (short) message via a GSM mobile phone network. The collar is interactive and can receive SMS commands, for instance, to adjust the interval at which location information is transmitted. We tested the method in experiments in which people equipped with GPS–GSM mobile phones approached a GPS–GSM-collared bear. Spatial locations of the bear and the approaching persons are displayed on the digital map on the computer screen in real-time. The dispersion of spatial information was 2.5 m, and the success rate in the experiments was 81.2% (new spatial locations successfully received when requested). The method proved to be useful and accurate enough to study the behavior of bears (e.g., escape initiation distance) in the proximity of humans. We believe the methodology presented will help researchers to better understand bear behavior and develop strategies to minimize negative bear–human interactions. Rapid data transmission creates new opportunities for animal tracking in general. We believe that the GPS mobile phone-based tracking will become the most cost-effective method for studying large animals in areas serviced by mobile phone networks.

Snow tracking is often used to inventory carnivore communities, but species identification using this method can produce ambiguous and misleading results. DNA can be extracted from hair and scat samples collected from tracks made in snow. Using DNA analysis could allow positive track identification across a broad range of snow conditions, thus increasing survey accuracy and efficiency. We investigated the efficacy of DNA identification using hairs and scats collected during the winter along putative Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) snow tracks and compared our findings to those obtained using hair-snaring techniques during the summer. We were able to positively identify 81% and 98% of the hair and scat samples, respectively, that were collected in or near snow tracks. Samples containing amplifiable lynx DNA were collected at rates of 1.2–1.3 per km of lynx tracks followed. These amplification rates and encounter frequencies validate the collection and use of DNA samples from snow tracks as a feasible technique for identifying Canada lynx and possibly other rare carnivores. We recommend that biologists include the collection of hairs and scats for DNA analysis as part of snow-tracking surveys whenever species identification is a high priority.

Noninvasive hair and fecal DNA sampling provides a means of collecting information on elusive species, while causing little or no disturbance. However, current methods of hair collection do not preclude multiple sampling, thus risking sample contamination. We developed a hair snare that prevents multiple sampling, is cost-effective, easy to construct, and safe for target and nontarget species. Our initial field tests on endangered San Joaquin kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis mutica) and swift foxes (Vulpes velox) suggest that this hair snare may be effective in collecting uncontaminated samples for DNA analysis.

Noninvasive sampling of mammalian hairs for surveying their populations and for providing density estimations is widely applicable in wildlife ecology and management. However, the efficiency of the method may differ depending on the species or local circumstances. We modified a method of hair trapping from free-ranging Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) to collect DNA samples to work in a low-density population. We constructed hair traps based on a device developed for Canada lynx and assessed their effectiveness in Białowieża Forest, Poland. We set 153 hair traps baited with beaver (Castor canadensis) castoreum and catnip oil at points previously used by lynx for scent-marking. We conducted the study in 2 consecutive winter and summer seasons during 2003–2004. Lynx rubbed 22–46% of the hair traps in 5 different trapping sessions. Lynx were more likely to rub hair traps set directly at scent-marking points on conspicuous marked objects than when they were set some distance (1–3 m) from the marked objects. Efficiency of hair-trapping sessions increased from 30.1 to 46.4% after selecting the most likely points. The percentage of traps visited and rubbed by lynx was higher in winter than summer in 2 consecutive years (30.1 vs. 22.2% and 46.4 vs. 23.3%, respectively), which may be related to mating behavior. This method proved efficient for monitoring low-density Eurasian lynx populations.

Abert squirrels (Sciurus aberti) are ecologically dependent on ponderosa pine forests. Southwestern dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium vaginatum) is a common parasite of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) that can result in the formation of an abnormal growth structure or branching pattern in its host known as a witches' broom. Management of this parasite has generally included intensive removal of infected trees. Previous studies have identified witches' brooms as important for wildlife; however, little is known about the relationship between it and Abert squirrels. We examined the contents of 226 dwarf mistletoe-induced witches' brooms in 144 ponderosa pine trees for evidence of Abert squirrel use between September 2000 and November 2001 and documented use in 39 brooms (31 caching and foraging sites and 8 nest sites). We compared the physical characteristics of brooms with evidence of use to those with no evidence of use to predict the probability of a broom being used as a caching and foraging site by Abert squirrels. As number of branches within a broom and tree height increased so did the probability of Abert squirrel use. We recommend managers retain ponderosa pine trees ≥18 m in height having brooms with >7 branches to provide usable caching and foraging sites for Abert squirrels.

The golden-cheeked warbler (Dendroica chrysoparia) is a federally listed endangered species with an extremely limited breeding range (Edwards Plateau, Tex., USA) and specific habitat requirements. Although localized habitat composition and structure correlate well with golden-cheeked warbler occurrence and nest location, the effects of landscape composition and structure are largely untested. To investigate landscape-scale influences on habitat occupancy, we surveyed 202 point locations for golden-cheeked warbler presence. We used logistic regression to compare the relative influence of 4 landscape-scale variables (largest patch index, percent of the landscape in woodland, mean-nearest neighbor, and edge density) measured at 4 spatial scales (3 ha, 12 ha, 50 ha, and 200 ha) in predicting occurrence. The amount of mature juniper–oak (Juniperus ashei and Quercus spp.) woodland in the landscape was the single most important variable across spatial scales and average values of woodland cover remained stable across scales. Golden-cheeked warblers occurred in a local habitat only when landscape composition exceeded 40% woodland and the likelihood of occurrence was greater than 0.5 only when landscape composition exceeded 80% woodland. By contrast, common measures of habitat fragmentation, including edge density and mean-nearest neighbor, were poor predictors of species occurrence across all spatial scales. Our results suggest that golden-cheeked warblers may be less sensitive to fragmentation then they are to overall habitat loss, which may be due to natural habitat heterogeneity related to the variable terrain. Our results do not preclude a relationship between habitat fragmentation and overall habitat quality as measured by nesting success, survival, and recruitment. While our results hold promise for increasing the reliability of predicting species occurrence, future studies are needed to determine the influence of landscape composition and structure on the ultimate measures of habitat quality.

As part of a larger study on prairie ecosystems, we evaluated the use of playback alarm calls as a monitoring protocol to obtain more representative measures of the detection rate and abundance of Richardson's ground squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii). Using these data we quantified habitat preferences of Richardson's ground squirrels by comparing availability and use of native pastures and cultivated lands. Lastly, we determined whether grass height influenced Richardson's ground squirrel habitat use. Results from surveys indicated that the playback of alarm calls increased levels of detection of Richardson's ground squirrels in 2003 (t₂₄ = −6.82, P < 0.001) and 2004 (t₃₂ = −5.91, P < 0.001) and estimates of abundance in 2003 (t₂₄ = −4.35, P < 0.001) and 2004 (t₃₂ = −6.82, P < 0.001). Our habitat comparisons showed that Richardson's ground squirrels preferred native pasture and selected against cultivated lands when compared to habitat type availability (χ²₁ = 45.22, P < 0.001). Ground squirrels selected native pasture with grass heights between 0–30 cm and selected against areas with tall grass (>30 cm; χ²₁ = 7.69, P = 0.0056). Our results suggest that playback alarm calls may constitute an important monitoring protocol to determine Richardson's ground squirrel abundance and habitat use.

Information about factors influencing forest-floor small mammals of midwestern riparian forests in agriculture-dominated areas is necessary for improved forest management. We determined occurrence and capture rates of forest-floor small mammal taxa at 4 northeastern Missouri riparian forests during 1995–2002. We modeled the effects of year, study site, and precipitation (flooding) on relative abundance of commonly captured taxa. We also evaluated changes in the species assemblage and capture rates resulting from silvicultural treatments (clearcut, basal area retention, and unharvested) at a 215-ha forest tract. We captured 12 taxa of forest-floor small mammals, of which 10 were captured at all sites. The species assemblages were dominated by habitat generalists, such as Peromyscus spp. and Sorex spp. Among-year variation in capture rates was large for all common taxa. Precipitation amounts during spring and summer were negatively correlated with relative abundances of several forest-floor small mammal taxa. We measured few changes in taxonomic composition or abundances of forest-floor small mammals in response to silvicultural treatments. There was some indication that Peromyscus spp. and short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) abundance decreased in areas where treatments increased fragmentation, but among-year differences accounted for more variation than treatment effects. We suggest that small mammal assemblages in fragmented midwestern riparian forests are dominated by habitat generalists and their abundances are primarily affected by variability in environmental conditions (especially flooding during the breeding season). Silvicultural treatments may have minimal effects on taxonomic composition or abundance, as long as forests are allowed to regenerate, mature forest blocks are maintained, and other important factors (e.g., hydrology) are not altered.

On 18 September 2004, The Wildlife Society (TWS) published an official policy statement on economic growth and wildlife conservation. We believe this policy statement did not adequately address the issues. Thus, TWS missed an opportunity to lead the natural resource profession in refuting the fallacious rhetoric that “there is no conflict between economic growth and wildlife conservation” through the adoption of a strong policy statement on economic growth. Although we commend TWS Council for adopting a policy statement on economic growth, we believe the final wording contains several weaknesses. Here, we take a closer look at the statement and further evaluate how it might be strengthened in the future.

The editor of Wildlife Society Bulletin asked me to respond to the Gates et al. (2006) article on The Wildlife Society's (TWS) economic growth policy statement. This was done with the concurrence of the authors of that article. I prepared a draft of this response, then ran it by Council, along with the Gates manuscript, the original proposed policy statement, and the policy statement approved by Council. In our reading of the Gates manuscript, the issues raised by the authors seem to be twofold: 1) the process by which this policy statement was adopted, and, 2) the content of the adopted policy, which varies significantly from that proposed by the TWS Working Group on Local Governance. I will address both issues.

A primary threat to amphibians in North America is the loss of wetland areas used for reproduction, especially small, temporary, and isolated wetlands. The Illinois chorus frog (Pseudacris streckeri illinoensis) is particularly vulnerable and exists today in a highly fragmented distribution limited to a few isolated populations in Arkansas, Illinois, and Missouri. Precision land-leveling combined with seasonal drought conditions has resulted in a significant population decline and range contraction for this species in Arkansas. Distributional surveys conducted from 1987 through 2004 indicate a 61% range contraction from a maximum of 59 km² to a current range of approximately 23 km². Additionally, there has been a lack of recruitment the past 2 years for a species that typically possesses a 2–3-year lifespan. Because the Clean Water Act will only protect isolated vernal pools if the continued existence of a threatened or endangered species is jeopardized, the future of this subspecies of chorus frog in Arkansas is both tenuous and problematic. In the absence of immediate protection and habitat modification through the reintroduction of depressions, we argue extirpation of this species in Arkansas may be imminent. The increasing use of precision land-leveling may have implications for other amphibian species worldwide.

The use of food plots, supplemental feeding, and baiting has been a common and legal practice in Texas for many years. There is now controversy as to whether Texas Parks and Wildlife Department should include this extra nutrition as part of their carrying capacity estimates used to determine harvest permits for private landowners. Managers should remember that nutrition is only one component of carrying capacity, which includes water, shelter, and space as well. Extensive data exists about the potential negative impact of feeding on deer. Studies in Texas (Murden and Risenhoover 1993) have shown that fed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) can degrade rangeland by overconsuming high-quality plants and underconsuming low-quality plants. Guiterrez (1999) did not find that effect when South Texas deer were offered winter food plots. Donier et al. (1997) found in Minnesota that winter supplementation increased browse pressure within 900 m of feeders. Other reports (Williamson 2000) show increased browse pressure within a 1-mile radius of feeders, perhaps due to concentration of deer. Cooper et al. (2002) found 50% kernal home range sizes of fed deer were half that of unfed deer and that browse pressure near the feeder was 7 times that of unfed deer. Supplemental feeding has been suspected of contributing to the spread of tuberculosis in deer, chronic wasting disease in elk (Cervus canadensis) and deer, and brucellosis in elk and bison (Bison bison; Williamson 2000). Crowding due to supplemental feeding led to fighting and injuries in Michigan deer (Ozoga 1972). Feeding has actually led to starvation in deer due to increases in population when feeding was initiated (McCullough 1977, Schmitz 1990). Supplemental feed is consumed by nontarget species, possibly leading them to pass disease and to attract predators. Cooper and Ginnett (2000) found decreased survivorship of simulated turkey nests within 400 m of deer feeders in Texas. In 1998 we found illegal levels of aflatoxin in 40% of 100 randomly purchased bags of “deer corn” in Texas (N. Wilkins, Texas Cooperative Extension, USA, unpublished data). The ecological significance of deer feeding and baiting is only part of the issue. Feeding leads to ethical questions as well. Feeding is part of the domestication process, along with fencing, breeding, and health programs that, due to their expense, may lead to the desire for private ownership of wildlife. Baiting, likewise, adds to the advantages of the hunter over the hunted and may decrease hunter satisfaction and increase concerns of the antihunters and the nonhunting public (Ortega y Gasset 1995). Deer managers and agency personnel should review the data presented here and incorporate it into their decision making when considering feeding or baiting of deer.

Increasing human–wildlife interactions in urban and suburban environments have created new challenges for management agencies as residents seek to become more involved in the decision-making process. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) management may best illustrate both the challenges and the opportunities that exist in human-dominated environments. In these settings wildlife managers are increasingly being expected to engage stakeholders in identifying objectives and implementing management actions tailored to local needs and circumstances. We argue that successful management in these environments is closely related to several attributes of the stakeholder involvement process. Thus, additional theoretical developments and more empirical research will be needed to help managers facilitate community-based decision-making processes that are truly collaborative. We believe the next frontier for continued advancement and increased community and agency satisfaction with suburban deer management is improving local knowledge and leadership. We contend this can best be done through comprehensive intervention programs. In this paper we draw on the body of wildlife agency collaborative management process research to identify and describe the role of knowledge and local leadership in collaboration.

The social and political dynamics of wildlife management have changed markedly since the emergence of the profession. Today much of the legal responsibility to manage wildlife rests with state agencies. These agencies essentially have institutionalized the discipline, providing the regulatory, normative, and cultural foundation for wildlife management within each state. Pressure for reform of the state wildlife management institution is increasing. These pressures include the need for consistent sources of funding for wildlife management to offset the revenue decline from historically reliable license sales as numbers of hunters and trappers decline; increased interest from nontraditional stakeholders for better access to and involvement in the decision-making process; and demands from society for expansion of services provided (e.g., wildlife damage mitigation, disease control). We believe that state wildlife agencies can play a crucial role in initiating and guiding constructive reforms. We argue that state wildlife agencies can become more effective and valued by society if they are seen as agents of change. State wildlife management agencies, particularly the professionals staffing such agencies, have the opportunity to manage and lead change in a way that benefits the agencies, the public, and wildlife. We identify what we believe are some opportunities for wildlife professionals to become change agents.

Human dimension research published regarding public attitudes about wildlife or natural resource management often reflects an inadequate understanding on the part of the authors regarding attitudes, their social psychological frameworks, and their relationship to behaviors. In this paper we define attitudes, examine their relationship to behaviors, and examine some theoretical frameworks for attitudes. Additionally, we examine some shortcomings we believe are common in wildlife attitudinal research and make suggestions to improve the quality and consistency of the work.

As part of a program to recover the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) in the southeastern United States, we assessed procedural and demographic influences on hacking success by evaluating inherent variation and incorporating controlled manipulation in hacking protocol. We examined release age and date, release cohort size and sex ratio, postfledging area occupancy, and feeding regimen. Fourteen peregrines dispersed successfully, 9 dispersed prematurely, and 5 died before dispersal. Generally, these variables were poor predictors of success with release age (t = −1.29, P = 0.25) and feeding regimen (χ² = 1.32, P = 0.25) showing only weak associations with success. Sex interacted predictably with release age and postfledging area occupancy to influence success; males were more successful when released younger (± SD days = 45.4 ± 2.8 [successful] and 47.1 ± 5.0 [unsuccessful]) onto a postfledging area occupied by few conspecifics (± SD number of peregrines = 0.3 ± 0.4 [successful] and 1.3 ± 1.3 [unsuccessful]), whereas females were more successful when released older (47.0 ± 1.8 [successful] and 44.5 ± 0.7 [unsuccessful]) and were unaffected by postfledging area occupancy (0.9 ± 0.8 [successful] and 1.0 ± 1.4 [unsuccessful]). These results added substantiation to the perception of hacking as a procedurally sound tool in the release of captive-reared peregrines and highlighted some alternate considerations on feeding regimen and release-cohort sex ratio in raptor hacking.

Population trends in bobcats (Lynx rufus) have been difficult to monitor because traditional field survey methods usually produce very low detection rates. However, new methods of detecting bobcats have been developed. I compared the rate of detection, cost, and time required for automatic cameras, hair-snares, scent stations, and a detector dog trained to find bobcat scats. The detector dog produced nearly 10 times the number of bobcat detections as the other methods combined. The detector dog was the most expensive method and, depending upon weather and number of scats required, required more field time than the other methods. However, use of detector dogs requires only one visit to each survey site. Hair-snares and scent stations were the cheapest methods but produced the least detections. Field time for hair-snares, cameras, and scent stations was similar. Use of detector dogs has the potential to consistently achieve sufficient detection rates to provide useful indices for population monitoring of bobcats.