BACKGROUND: Pesticides play a crucial role in enhancing agricultural productivity by controlling pests. However, inadequate pesticide handling practices have a considerable adverse impact on human health. Nevertheless, there is limited knowledge regarding the extent of safe pesticide handling practices, particularly in low-income settings like Ethiopia. Hence, this study seeks to evaluate the implementation of safe pesticide handling practices and identify the factors associated with the status of the handling practices in low-income settings in Ethiopia.
METHODS: A cross-sectional study was undertaken, involving 468 farmers randomly selected for participation. Data collection was carried out through structured questionnaires and face-to-face interviews. The analysis aimed to assess the proportion of safe pesticide handling practices (SPHP) and investigate the factors associated with SPHP was done using binary logistic regression. Explanatory variables with a P-value <0.25 were included in the final analysis. The factors were determined based on adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals, P-value <.05. Model fit was evaluated using the Hosmer and Lemeshow tests.
RESULTS: From the findings of our study, only 45.7% of farmers practiced SPHP, with factors such as education, experience, pesticide usage, and attitude toward safe practices influencing their practices. Farmers with education status primary and above were two times more likely to practice good handling of pesticides than those who didn’t attend formal education. Farmers with a maximum of 5 years of experience in vegetable farming were 2.4 times more likely to exhibit good handling practices compared to their counterparts. Furthermore, farmers with favorable attitudes toward pesticide handling were 4.2 times more likely to engage in good pesticide handling practices than those with unfavorable attitudes. Therefore, the agricultural sectors, health sectors, and farmer associations should focus on these factors in order to mitigate the health risks associated with poor pesticide handling.
Introduction
Pesticides are chemicals used to control, prevent, or destroy pests, including vectors, unwanted plant or animal species, diseases, or harm during food production, processing, storage, or marketing.1 Despite their benefits in improving agricultural products, they may also cause health risks to the sprayers, product users, and the ecosystem.2-4 Over 1000 pesticides are used globally to prevent food damage or destruction, each with unique properties and toxicological effects.5
The emerging health risks of the use of toxic compounds call for the need for safe handling practices, which are underestimated by pesticide handlers. Therefore, safe handling practices are crucial to reducing health risks and preventing exposure.6 Safe pesticide handling involves the practice of wearing personal protective equipment, storing pesticides separately, following the application guidelines, and disposing of empty containers properly during pesticide handling to ensure safety and prevent contamination.7,8 Evidence from the literature revealed that poor handling practices and unregulated use of pesticides in agriculture pose significant risks to human health, particularly in Africa.9-12 Occupational exposure is common, with farm workers being a primary risk group.12 This is because farmers can accidentally expose themselves to pesticides through various activities, including mixing, loading, spraying, direct contact with vegetation, cleaning equipment, and vapor drift.13 The adverse effects of pesticides are increasing in developing countries14 partly attributed to low education levels and unfavorable working conditions.
In Ethiopia, poor handling practices, a lack of knowledge about SPH (Safe pesticide handling), and unintentional application errors can pose serious health risks to farmers.7,9,15,16 Farmers’ knowledge and attitude toward potential pesticide hazards are essential in preventing exposure.17 However, the information related to the prevalence of SPHP and the factors determining the safe handling practice is limited in Ethiopia. Therefore, this study investigates the level of safe pesticide handling practices and factors associated with SPHP among farmers participating in vegetable farming in selected districts in Jimma Zone, South West Ethiopia. The findings of this study may help farmers and rural development agents in mitigating the risks related to pesticide handling. More importantly, it helps the local agriculture sector, health sector, and policymakers to identify the interventions targeted to improve safe handling practices.
Methods and Materials
Study area
The study was conducted in the Jimma zone of the Oromia region in southwestern Ethiopia, focusing on three districts: Gomma, Dedo, and Seka Chokorsa (Figure 1). Jimma zone, which comprises 20 administrative districts with a population of 3.4 million, has a total area of 15 569 km2 and an annual rainfall range of 1200 to 2800 mm. Subsistence farming is the primary source of income for 85% of the inhabitants.18 The area has suitable agro ecological potential and has the lowest drought risk rating in the country.19 Small-holder farmers grow cash crops such as coffee, tea, fruits, and vegetables to enhance family income and achieve food security.20 The study focuses on farmers who participated in vegetable farming (such as onions, tomatoes, potatoes, and garlic). Vegetables are the most chosen crops due to their high productivity and quick production cycle, resulting in a larger return per unit area and significantly reducing unemployment.21
Study design and period
A cross-sectional study was conducted among 468 household vegetable farmers in Jimma zone districts, Seka Chokersa, Dedo, and Goma, using a structured questionnaire. The survey was conducted from September to December 2023, with informed consent from household heads.
Sample size determination
The sample size was determined using a single population proportion formula.22 with the following assumptions: P = was the proportion of good SPHP from north Ethiopia, Fogera district (24.4%),7 and Z α /2 = refers to the cut of the value of the normal distribution and is based on a 95% confidence interval.
Considering the design effect of 1.5, since the selection stages, and 10% non-response rate, the final sample size was 468 farmers.
Operational definitions
Pesticide use: Pesticides are substances or mixtures used in agriculture or public health programs to protect plants from pests, weeds, and diseases.17
Safe pesticide handling involves the practice of wearing personal protective equipment, storing pesticides separately, following the application guidelines, and disposing of empty containers properly during pesticide handling to ensure safety and prevent contamination.7,8
Sampling techniques
Data collection took place in three districts within the Jimma Zone: Dedo, Gomma, and Seka Chokorsa. The study participants were selected through a three-stage process. In the first stage, three districts were purposefully chosen from a total of 20 districts in the Jimma Zone, based on their high levels of participation in vegetable farming. In the second stage, three kebeles (small administrative units) were randomly selected from each district. In the third stage, households were proportionally selected from each kebele. Specifically, kebeles selected were Ofkole Waro and Afalti from Dedo, Dabo, Ushan, and Gabo from Seka Chokorsa, and Ganji, Jimate, and Chemi from Gomma. The study employed a lottery method to identify the kebeles, and households were selected using systematic random sampling. The head of the household served as the respondent, and if the head was unable to participate in farming activities due to old age or illness, an adult individual (age 18 or above) engaged in farming activities was selected as the respondent.
Data collection
The data were collected using face-to-face interviews using a pretested, structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was written in English and translated into the Afan Oromo language by experts. It was back-translated to check its constancy in translation. The questionnaire contains socio-demographic information, pesticide utilization variables, knowledge, and attitudes of the farmers about safe pesticide handling and safe pesticide handling practices. Nine trained agricultural extension workers collected the data, and two environmental health experts participated in supervising the fieldwork.
Data quality assurance
Data quality was assured through provision of training for data collectors and supervisors on the tool, using standardized tools (pre-tested), and closes supervision during fieldwork. Two days of training were given to data collectors and supervisors. The data collection procedure was supervised carefully to increase the accuracy and completeness of the data every day during the fieldwork.
Data processing and analysis
The data were entered into Epidata version 3.123 and exported to SPSS version 2024 for analysis. Descriptive analysis: mean and standard deviation were used for age, average monthly family income, and duration of participation in farming activities. For the categorical variables, sex, marital status, educational status, safe pesticide handling practice, attitudes toward safe handling practice, age category, and knowledge about safe pesticide handling practice were analyzed using frequency and percentage.
Safe pesticide handling practice was measured using 10 questions (items) with Likert scale of 5 levels. The safe handling practices were computed from the responses to the 10 questions using the mean as a cut point; values equal to or above the mean were considered “good practices,” and values below the mean were considered “poor practices.”25 Attitudes toward safe handling practices were measured using 9 questions with Likert scale of 5 levels. The attitudes of the respondents toward safe practice were computed from the responses to 9 questions using the mean as a cut point, and the values equal to or above the mean were “positive attitudes,” and the values below the mean were “negative attitudes.” The knowledge of farmers about safe handling practices was measured using 8 questions with Likert scale of 5 levels. The knowledge of the respondents on the safe handling of pesticides was computed from 8 questions, considering the mean as the cut point, and the value equal to the mean or above the mean was considered “good knowledge,” and the value below the mean was “poor knowledge.”
Logistic regression analysis was performed to identify factors associated with safe handling practices (i.e., the outcome variable). All explanatory variables associated with the safe pesticide handling practice in the bivariate analysis with a P-value <0.25 were included in the final analysis. The adjusted odds ratio (AOR) and the 95% confidence interval [95% CI] were used to determine the effect of potentially associated variables on the outcome variable by controlling confounders. All variables with a P-value of <.05 were considered to have statistically significant associations with the outcome variable. The Hosmer and Lemeshow tests were used to check the model’s goodness of fit.
Ethical consideration
The study’s ethical protocol was approved by Jimma University’s Institutional Research Ethical Review Board (IRB). Written informed consent was obtained from the study participants before data collection; all the records were noted in full anonymity, not including personal identifiers, and secured in all processes of the data handling and analysis.
Results
Socio-demographic characteristics
The study involved 468 farmers, with 92.2% being male with a mean age of 43 years. Over half attended primary or higher education, and most were married (90.8%). Approximately 54.3% of the participants had family members totaling five or more individuals. Around 47% of the participants possessed one or more hectares of farmland. The majority of participants (94.4%) had engaged in farming for duration of 5 years or more, with 45.1% specifically involved in vegetable farming (Table 1).
Table 1.
Socio-demographic characteristics of study participants in selected districts in Jimma Zone, Southwest Ethiopia, 2023.
Pesticide utilization patterns among farmers
The study analyzed pesticide utilization patterns among farmers who participated in vegetable farming in the Jimma Zone, and all of them have previous utilization histories. The majority (98.1%) used at least one type of pesticide during the current season, with frequency varying from once to more than twice. Most (56.6%) used pesticides only for vegetables, while 42.5% used vegetables and cereals. Trends in pesticide use were increasing (85.3%), with only 3.2% decreasing in the last 5 years. Information on pesticide use came from rural development agents, other farmers, and pesticide retailers. Most (78.6%) respondents got pesticides from licensed dealers, and 65% knew the pesticide names they used before (Table 2).
Safety and health risks during pesticide spraying
The study revealed that 84.8% of respondents used at least one type of personal protective device during previous pesticide sprays, while 75% experienced at least one acute symptom, such as vomiting, headache, diarrhea, difficulty breathing, or sleeplessness, from the health risk self-reports of 351 participants (Table 3).
Safe pesticide handling practices (SPHP) among farmers
To assess safe pesticide handling practices, the study employed a scale consisting of 5 items. The mean value was utilized as the threshold for categorizing the responses. The findings revealed that 28.8% of the respondents consistently used personal protective equipment (PPE), 42.5% stored pesticides securely, 23.7% followed application instructions, 41% sought expert advice, and merely 16% disposed of pesticide containers and leftovers according to recommendations. Overall, 45.7% of the respondents demonstrated good pesticide handling practices, whereas 54.3% exhibited poor practices (Table 4).
Table 2.
Pesticide utilization patterns among vegetable farmers in selected districts in Jimma Zone, 2023.
Attitude of farmers toward safe pesticide handling practices
The study assessed respondents’ attitudes toward safe pesticide handling practices using a scale of 5 with nine questions. The mean value was used as a cut point, with a value above the mean indicating a favorable attitude. Out of 468 respondents, 45.1% had a favorable attitude toward safe pesticide handling practices, while 54.9% had an unfavorable attitude (Table 5).
Knowledge of farmers about safe pesticide handling practices
A study assessed the knowledge of 468 respondents about safe pesticide handling practices using multiple questions with a scale of 5. The mean value was used as a cut point, with a value above the mean indicating good knowledge and below the mean indicating poor knowledge. Out of 468 respondents, 44% had good knowledge, while 56% had poor knowledge (Table 6).
Factors associated with SPHP among farmers
In this study, safe pesticide handling practices were examined as the outcome variable, and various factors were assessed for their potential association. Initially, a crude analysis was conducted, using univariable analysis in binary logistic regression, as the outcome variable was categorized into good or poor practice. Variables that showed significance at a P-value of less than 0.25 were selected for further analysis in the adjusted analysis, which aimed to control for confounding variables. In the univariate analysis, variables such as age, sex, family size, educational status, farmland size in hectares, experience in vegetable farming, pesticide use, knowledge about pesticide handling, and attitudes toward safe handling practices displayed significance with a P-value of less than 0.25. Consequently, these variables were included in the final model.
Table 3.
Safety and acute health risks experienced by pesticide spraying among selected vegetable farmers in Jimma Zone, 2023.
Table 4.
Safe pesticide handling practices among vegetable farmers in the selected districts of Jimma Zone, 2023.
Table 5.
Attitude of farmers toward safe pesticide handling practice among vegetable farmers in selected districts in Jimma Zone, 2023.
Table 6.
Knowledge of farmers about safe pesticide handling practices among vegetable farmers in selected districts in Jimma Zone, 2023.
In the final model, safe pesticide handling practices were significantly associated with the educational status of the farmers, their experience of vegetable farming, their experience of pesticide utilization, and their attitude toward safe pesticide handling practices. Accordingly, farmers with at least primary education status were two times more likely [AOR: 2.1, 95% CI: 1.25–3.54] to practice good handling practices than those who didn’t attend any formal education. Experience with vegetable farming for 5 or fewer years was 2.4 times more likely [AOR: 2.4, 95% CI: 1.53–3.88] to practice good handling than their counterpart. Similarly, farmers who had 2 or more years of experience with pesticide use were 4.7 times more likely [AOR: 4.68, 95% CI: 2.29–9.56] to practice good handling than the less experienced farmers. The farmers who had favorable attitudes were also 4.2 times more likely [AOR: 4.17, 95% CI: 2.32–7.48] to practice good pesticide handling than those with unfavorable attitudes (Table 7).
Table 7.
Factors associated with safe pesticide handling practices among vegetable farmers in selected districts in Jimma zone, 2023.
Discussion
This community-based cross-sectional study was conducted to assess safe pesticide handling practices and factors associated with good handling practices in low-income settings, particularly in southwest, Ethiopia. The level of safe handling practices among the farmers was good for 45.7% [95% CI: 41.2%–50.2%] of the respondents. This study revealed that more than half of the respondents handle pesticides in unsafe conditions that expose them to different health risks. The level of safe pesticide handling practice in the study was higher than the results from Gondar, North Ethiopia, in 2023, 24.4%,7 and in 2019, 36.2%.25 On the other hand, it was lower than the study finding from Bahir Dar city (61.3%), North West Ethiopia.9 The variation may be attributed to the control intervention variations.
The practice of safe pesticide handling was found to have significant associations with the educational status of farmers, their experience in vegetable farming, their experience in pesticide utilization, and their attitudes toward safe pesticide handling practices. Specifically, farmers with a minimum of primary education were twice as likely (AOR: 2.1, 95% CI: 1.25–3.54) to adopt good handling practices compared to those who did not receive any formal education. These findings align with previous research conducted in North Ethiopia,7,25 Thailand,26 and Nigeria,27 which explain that good handling practices are influenced by the educational level of the pesticide handlers. This is because educated individuals have more insights into the risks and consequences of toxic compounds than those with low educational status.
The findings of the present study indicate a significant relationship between farmers’ experience in farming activities and pesticide use, and their adherence to safe pesticide handling practices. Specifically, farmers with a maximum of 5 years of experience in vegetable farming were 2.4 times more likely (AOR: 2.4, 95% CI: 1.53–3.88) to engage in good handling practices compared to their counterparts. Similarly, farmers who had 2 or more years of experience in pesticide use were 4.7 times more likely (AOR: 4.68, 95% CI: 2.29–9.56) to practice good handling compared to those with less experience. These findings are consistent with previous studies conducted in Ethiopia, supporting the observed association,7,16 Nigeria,27 and Thailand.26 It may be explained that farmers learn the consequences and risks of pesticides through continuous observation, understanding their effects, and avoiding unsafe practices over time through self-learning and consistent observation.
The other significant factor was farmers’ attitudes toward safe pesticide handling practices. The farmers who had favorable attitudes were also 4.2 times more likely [AOR: 4.17, 95% CI: 2.32–7.48] to practice good pesticide handling than those with unfavorable attitudes. The finding was also supported by similar studies from Ethiopia,25,28 Nepal,29 and Thailand.26 This is because human action and behavior are based on willingness. The perceptions of the farmers lead to their actions. For instance, farmers who have a positive attitude may be encouraged to put the recommendations in the guidelines into action. On the other hand, those who have a negative attitude toward the action may not do it, even though it causes observable risks to their well-being.
The finding suggests that intensifying behavioral change education interventions targeted at farmers with low educational status and counseling may help reduce the risks related to unsafe handling practices. Additionally, the policy makers, including the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, and the Environmental Protection Authority, should work on integrated awareness programs to improve pesticide safety practices for farmers. Finally, because of the nature of the study, the self-reported handling practices may introduce recall bias, making it difficult to recall pesticides from a year or a month. Additionally, inaccuracies in reporting on pesticide chemical use history and experience may affect the results. The future research may benefit from focusing on interventional longitudinal studies targeted to the solutions.
Conclusions
In conclusion, the study revealed that about five in nine farmers engaged in vegetable farming in the study area have poor pesticide handling practices, which will pose health risks to farmers, consumers, and the ecosystem. The study revealed significant associations between factors like educational status, farming experience, pesticide utilization experience, attitude toward safe practices, and a lower level of safe handling practices. In order to mitigate the risks arising from unsafe pesticide handling practices, future interventions should address these factors, with a specific focus on raising awareness and providing close supervision for farmers with limited pesticide utilization experience.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all study participants, data collectors, and survey supervisors for their valuable support.
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Author Contributions
HH: methodology, formal analysis, visualization, original draft writing, and reviewing the manuscript. SM: methodology, formal analysis, visualization, writing review, editing. SF and HA: methodology, formal analysis, visualization, writing, review editing. All the authors read and approved the final version.
Ethical Approval and Consent to Participate
Ethical approval to conduct this research was obtained from the Jimma University Institute of Review Boards (IRB) of the University of South-West Ethiopia. Written informed consent was obtained from the study participants. All subjects voluntarily participated in the study.
Availability of Data and Materials
The data sets analyzed during the current study are available in the supporting information.
