Stalter, R. and Lonard, R.I., 2024. Biological flora of sand dunes on the northwest Pacific coastline of North America: Ammophila arenaria (L.) Link and Ammophila breviligulata Fernald. Journal of Coastal Research, 40(5), 994–1000. Charlotte (North Carolina), ISSN 0749-0208.

Ammophila arenaria, native to European coastal dunes, was initially introduced on the Pacific coast of North America in 1868, while A. breviligulata was introduced to temperate regions along the Pacific coast in 1935. Both rhizomatous taxa are often dominant on coastal foredunes. Ammophila arenaria has short, thick rhizomes, while A. breviligulata has a spreading rhizome system. Both species have been introduced for sand stabilization and shoreline protection. The primary method of reproduction for both taxa is fragmentation of rhizomes. Ammophila breviligulata aggressively competes with A. arenaria and is now dominant over A. arenaria at many sites. The introduction of A. arenaria and A. breviligulata has contributed to dense cover on foredunes and a concomitant decline of native plants and animals, especially those dependent on open sand habitats. Ammophila breviligulata successfully competes with A. arenaria, which has reduced dune heights, increasing the number of areas vulnerable to storm surges and dune erosion.