Literature Cited
Avery,
D., and
R. T.
Watson (2009). Regulation of lead-based ammunition around the world. InIngestion of Lead from Spent Ammunition: Implications for Wildlife and Humans (
R. T.
Watson,
M.
Fuller,
M.
Pokras, and
W. G.
Hunt, Editors). The Peregrine Fund, Boise, ID, USA. pp. 161–168. Google Scholar
Bedrosian,
B.,
D.
Craighead, and
R.
Crandall (2012). Lead exposure in Bald Eagles from big game hunting, the continental implications and successful mitigation efforts. PLoS ONE 7(12): e51978.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051978
. Google Scholar
Berny,
P. J.,
E.
Mas, and
D.
Vey (2017). Embedded lead shots in birds of prey: The hidden threat. European Journal of Wildlife Research 63:101.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-017-1160-z
. Google Scholar
Burger,
J. (1995). A risk assessment for lead in birds. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 45:369–396. Google Scholar
Cade,
T. J. (2007). Exposure of California Condors to lead from spent ammunition. Journal of Wildlife Management 71:2125–2133. Google Scholar
Carpenter,
J. W.,
O. H.
Pattee,
S. H.
Fritts,
B. A.
Rattner,
S. N.
Wiemeyer,
J. A.
Royle, and
M. R.
Smith (2003). Experimental lead poisoning in Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 39:96–104. Google Scholar
Cartró-Sabaté,
M.,
P.
Mayor,
M.
Orta-Martínez, and
A.
Rosell-Melé (2019). Anthropogenic lead in Amazonian wildlife. Nature Sustainability 2:702–709. Google Scholar
Church,
M. E.,
R.
Gwiazda,
R. W.
Risebrough,
K.
Sorenson,
C. P.
Chamberlain,
S.
Farry,
W.
Heinrich,
B. A.
Rideout, and
D. R.
Smith (2006). Ammunition is the principal source of lead accumulated by California Condors reintroduced to the wild. Environmental Science and Technology 40:6143–6150. Google Scholar
Crandall,
R. H.,
D. J.
Craighead,
B.
Bedrosian, and
V. A.
Slabe (2019). Survival estimates and cause of mortality of Golden Eagles in south-central Montana. Journal of Raptor Research 53:38–45. Google Scholar
Davies,
D. J. A.,
I.
Thornton,
J. M.
Watt,
E. B.
Culbard,
P. G.
Harvey,
H. T.
Delves,
J. C.
Sherlock,
G. A.
Smart,
J. F. A.
Thomas, and
M. J.
Quinn (1990). Lead intake and blood lead in two-year-old UK urban children. Science of the Total Environment 90:13–29. Google Scholar
Ecke
F.,
N. J.
Singh,
J. M.
Arnemo,
A.
Bignert,
B.
Helander,
Å. M. M.
Berglund,
H.
Borg,
C.
Bröjer,
K.
Holm,
M.
Lanzone,
T.
Miller, et al. (2017). Sublethal lead exposure alters movement behavior in free-ranging Golden Eagles. Environmental Science and Technology 51:5729–5736. Google Scholar
Feierabend,
J. S., and
O.
Myers (1984). A National Summary of Lead Poisoning in Bald Eagles and Waterfowl. National Wildlife Federation, Washington, DC, USA. Google Scholar
Finkelstein,
M. E.,
J.
Brandt,
E.
Sandhaus,
J.
Grantham,
A.
Mee,
P. J.
Schuppert, and
D. R.
Smith (2015). Lead exposure risk from trash ingestion by the endangered California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 51:901–906. Google Scholar
Finkelstein,
M. E.,
D. F.
Doak,
D.
George,
J.
Burnett,
J.
Brandt,
M.
Church,
J.
Grantham, and
D. R.
Smith (2012). Lead poisoning and the deceptive recovery of the critically endangered California Condor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 109:11449–11454. Google Scholar
Finkelstein,
M. E.,
D.
George,
S.
Scherbinski,
R.
Gwiazda,
M.
Johnson,
J.
Burnett,
J.
Brandt,
S.
Lawrey,
A. P.
Pessier,
M.
Clark, and
J.
Wynne (2010). Feather lead concentrations and 207Pb/206Pb ratios reveal lead exposure history of California Condors (Gymnogyps californianus). Environmental Science and Technology 44:2639–2647. Google Scholar
Fisher,
I. J.,
D. J.
Pain, and
V. G.
Thomas (2006). A review of lead poisoning from ammunition sources in terrestrial birds. Biological Conservation 131:421–432. Google Scholar
Franson,
J. C., and
D. J.
Pain (2011). Environmental contaminants in biota: Interpreting tissue concentrations. InLead in Birds, Second Ed. (
W. N.
Beyer and
J. P.
Meador, Editors). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA. pp. 563–594. Google Scholar
Friend,
M. (1999). Lead. InField Manual of Wildlife Diseases: General Field Procedures and Diseases of Birds (
M.
Friend and
J. C.
Franson, Editors). US Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Madison, WI, USA. pp. 317–334. Google Scholar
Gangoso,
L.,
P.
Álvarez-Lloret,
A. B.
Rodríguez-Navarro,
R.
Mateo,
F.
Hiraldo, and
J. A.
Donázar (2009). Long-term effects of lead poisoning on bone mineralization in vultures exposed to ammunition sources. Environmental Pollution 157:569–574. Google Scholar
Garbett,
R.,
G.
Maude,
P.
Hancock,
D.
Kenny,
R.
Reading, and
A.
Amar (2018). Association between hunting and elevated blood lead levels in the critically endangered African White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus. Science of the Total Environment 630:1654–1665. Google Scholar
Gil-Sánchez,
J. M.,
S.
Molleda,
J. A.
Sánchez-Zapata Bautista,
I.
Navas,
R.
Godinho,
A. J.
García-Fernández, and
M.
Moleón (2018). From sport hunting to breeding success: Patterns of lead ammunition ingestion and its effects on an endangered raptor. Science of the Total Environment 613:483–491. Google Scholar
Haig,
S. M.,
J.
D'Elia,
C.
Eagles-Smith,
J. M.
Fair,
J.
Gervais,
G.
Herring,
J. W.
Rivers, and
J. H.
Schulz (2014). The persistent problem of lead poisoning in birds from ammunition and fishing tackle. The Condor 116:408–428. Google Scholar
Hansen,
E.,
C.
Lassen, and
A.
Elbaek-Jørgensen (2004). Advantages and Drawbacks of Restricting the Marketing and Use of Lead in Ammunition, Fishing Sinkers and Candle Wicks. Enterprise Directorate-General, European Commission, Brussels, Belguim. Google Scholar
Helander,
B.,
J.
Axelsson,
H.
Borg,
K.
Holm, and
A.
Bignert (2009). Ingestion of lead from ammunition and lead concentrations in White-tailed Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Sweden. Science of the Total Environment 407:5555–5563. Google Scholar
Henny,
C. J.,
L. J.
Blus,
D. J.
Hoffman,
R. A.
Grove, and
J. S.
Hatfield (1991). Lead accumulation and Osprey production near a mining site on the Coeur d'Alene River, Idaho. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 21:415–424. Google Scholar
Ishii,
C.,
S. M. M.
Nakayama,
Y.
Ikenaka,
H.
Nakata,
K.
Saito,
Y.
Watanabe,
H.
Mizukawa,
S.
Tanabe,
K.
Nomiyama,
T.
Hayashi, and
M.
Ishizuka (2017). Lead exposure in raptors from Japan and source identification using Pb stable isotope ratios. Chemosphere 186:367–373. Google Scholar
Isomursu,
M.,
J.
Koivusaari,
T.
Stjernberg,
V.
Hirvelä-Koski, and
E. R.
Venäläinen (2018). Lead poisoning and other human-related factors cause significant mortality in White-tailed Eagles. Ambio 47:858–868. Google Scholar
Jørgensen,
S. S., and
M.
Willems (1987). The fate of lead in soils: The transformation of lead pellets in shooting-range soils. Ambio 16:11–15. Google Scholar
Katzner,
T. E.,
M. J.
Stuber,
V. A.
Slabe,
J. T.
Anderson,
J. L.
Cooper,
L. L.
Rhea, and
B. A.
Millsap (2018). Origins of lead in populations of raptors. Animal Conservation 21:232–240. Google Scholar
Kitowski,
I.,
D.
Jakubas,
D.
Wiącek, and
A.
Sujak (2017). Concentrations of lead and other elements in the liver of the White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), a European flagship species, wintering in Eastern Poland. Ambio 46:825–841. Google Scholar
Krone,
O. (2018). Lead poisoning in birds of prey. InBirds of Prey (
J. H.
Sarasola,
J. M.
Grande, and
J. J.
Negro, Editors). Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland. pp. 251–272. Google Scholar
Krone,
O.,
N.
Kenntner,
A.
Trinogga,
M.
Nadjafzadeh,
F.
Scholz,
J.
Sulawa,
K.
Totschek,
P.
Schuck-Wersig, and
R.
Zieschank (2009). Lead poisoning in White-tailed Sea Eagles: Causes and approaches to solutions in Germany. InIngestion of Lead from Spent Ammunition: Implications for Wildlife and Humans (
R. T.
Watson,
M.
Fuller,
M.
Pokras, and
W. G.
Hunt, Editors). The Peregrine Fund, Boise, ID, USA. pp. 289–301. Google Scholar
Lambertucci,
S. A.,
J. A.
Donázar,
A. D.
Huertas,
B.
Jiménez,
M.
Sáez,
J. A.
Sanchez-Zapata, and
F.
Hiraldo (2011). Widening the problem of lead poisoning to a South-American top scavenger: Lead concentrations in feathers of wild Andean Condors. Biological Conservation 144:1464–1471. Google Scholar
Lambertucci,
S. A.,
A.
Trejo,
S.
Di Martino,
J. A.
Sánchez-Zapata,
J. A.
Donázar, and
F.
Hiraldo (2009). Spatial and temporal patterns in the diet of the Andean Condor: Ecological replacement of native fauna by exotic species. Animal Conservation 12:338–345. Google Scholar
Langner,
H. W.,
R.
Domenech,
V. A.
Slabe, and
S. P.
Sullivan (2015). Lead and mercury in fall migrant Golden Eagles from western North America. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 69:54–61. Google Scholar
Langner,
H. W.,
E.
Greene,
R.
Domenech, and
M. F.
Staats (2012). Mercury and other mining-related contaminants in Ospreys along the Upper Clark Fork River, Montana, USA. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 62:681–695. Google Scholar
Lohr,
M. T.,
J. O.
Hampton,
S.
Cherriman,
F.
Busetti, and
C.
Lohr (2020). Completing a worldwide picture: preliminary evidence of lead exposure in a scavenging bird from mainland Australia. Science of the Total Environment 715:135913.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135913
. Google Scholar
Madden,
K. K.,
G. C.
Rozhon, and
J. F.
Dwyer (2019). Conservation Letter: Raptor persecution. Journal of Raptor Research 53:230–233. Google Scholar
Madry,
M. M.,
T.
Kraemer,
J.
Kupper,
H.
Naegeli,
H.
Jenny,
L.
Jenni, and
D.
Jenny (2015). Excessive lead burden among Golden Eagles in the Swiss Alps. Environmental Research Letters 10:034003.
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/3/034003
. Google Scholar
Mateo,
R., and
N.
Kanstrup (2019). Regulations on lead ammunition adopted in Europe and evidence of compliance. Ambio 48:989–998. Google Scholar
Nadjafzadeh,
M.,
H.
Hofer, and
O.
Krone (2013). The link between feeding ecology and lead poisoning in White-tailed Eagles. Journal of Wildlife Management 77:48–57. Google Scholar
Naidoo,
V.,
K.
Wolter,
I.
Espie, and
A.
Kotze (2012). Lead toxicity: Consequences and interventions in an intensively managed vulture colony. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43:573–578. Google Scholar
Pain,
D. J.,
I. J.
Fisher, and
V. G.
Thomas (2009). A global update of lead poisoning in terrestrial birds from ammunition sources. The Peregrine Fund, Boise, ID, USA. pp. 99–118. Google Scholar
Pain,
D. J.,
R.
Mateo, and
R. E.
Green (2019). Effects of lead from ammunition on birds and other wildlife: A review and update. Ambio 48:935–953. Google Scholar
Pain,
D. J.,
J.
Sears, and
I.
Newton (1995). Lead concentrations in birds of prey in Britain. Environmental Pollution 87:173–180. Google Scholar
Pattee,
O. H.,
J. W.
Carpenter,
S. H.
Fritts,
B. A.
Rattner,
S. N.
Wiemeyer,
J. A.
Royle, and
M. R.
Smith (2006). Lead poisoning in captive Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42:772–779. Google Scholar
Plaza,
P. I., and
S. A.
Lambertucci (2019). What do we know about lead contamination in wild vultures and condors? A review of decades of research. Science of the Total Environment 654:409–417. Google Scholar
Plaza,
P.I.,
M.
Uhart,
A.
Caselli,
G.
Wiemeyer, and
S. A.
Lambertucci (2018). A review of lead contamination in South American birds: The need for more research and policy changes. Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation 16:201–207. Google Scholar
Raptor Research Foundation (RRF) (2020). About us.
https://raptorresearchfoundation.org/about/history/
. Google Scholar
Rattner,
B. A.,
J. C.
Franson,
S. R.
Sheffield,
C. I.
Goddard,
N. J.
Leonard,
D.
Stang, and
P. J.
Wingate (2008). Sources and Implications of Lead Ammunition and Fishing Tackle on Natural Resources. Wildlife Society Technical Review 08-01. The Wildlife Society, Bethesda, MD, USA. Google Scholar
Rideout,
B. A.,
I.
Stalis,
R.
Papendick,
A.
Pessier,
B.
Puschner,
M. E.
Finkelstein,
D. R.
Smith,
M.
Johnson,
M.
Mace,
R.
Stroud,
J.
Brandt, et al. (2012). Patterns of mortality in free-ranging California Condors (Gymnogyps californianus). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 48:95–112. Google Scholar
Russell,
R. E., and
J. C.
Franson (2014). Causes of mortality in eagles submitted to the National Wildlife Health Center 1975–2013. Wildlife Society Bulletin 38:697–704. Google Scholar
Saito,
K. (2009). Lead poisoning of Steller's Sea-eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus) and White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) caused by the ingestion of lead bullets and slugs, in Hokkaido Japan. InIngestion of Lead from Spent Ammunition: Implications for Wildlife and Humans (
R. T.
Watson,
M.
Fuller,
M.
Pokras, and
W. G.
Hunt, Editors). The Peregrine Fund, Boise, ID, USA. pp. 302–309. Google Scholar
Scheuhammer,
A. M. (1987). The chronic toxicity of aluminium, cadmium, mercury and lead in birds: A review. Environmental Pollution 46:263–295. Google Scholar
Scheuhammer,
A. M., and
S. L.
Norris (1996). The ecotoxicology of lead shot and lead fishing weights. Ecotoxicology 5:279–295. Google Scholar
Schulz,
J. H.,
J. J.
Millspaugh,
B. E.
Washburn,
G. R.
Wester,
J. T.
Lanigan, III
, and
J. C.
Franson (2002). Spent-shot availability and ingestion on areas managed for Mourning Doves. Wildlife Society Bulletin 30:112–120. Google Scholar
Sieg,
R.,
K. A.
Sullivan, and
C. N.
Parish (2009). Voluntary lead reduction efforts within the northern Arizona range of the California Condor. InIngestion of Lead from Spent Ammunition: Implications for Wildlife and Humans (
R. T.
Watson,
M.
Fuller,
M.
Pokras, and
W. G.
Hunt, Editors). The Peregrine Fund, Boise, ID, USA. pp 341–349. Google Scholar
Slabe,
V. A.,
J. T.
Anderson,
J.
Cooper,
T. A.
Miller,
B.
Brown,
A.
Wrona,
P.
Ortiz,
J.
Buchweitz,
D.
McRuer,
E.
Dominguez-Villegas, and
S.
Behmke (2020). Feeding ecology drives lead exposure of facultative and obligate avian scavengers in the eastern United States. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 39:882–892. Google Scholar
Spurling,
P.,
L.
Brown, and
C.
Parish (2018). The North American Non-lead Partnership, Version 1. The Peregrine Fund, Boise, ID, USA.
http://www.nonleadpartnership.org
. Google Scholar
Stroud,
D. A. (2015). Regulation of some sources of lead poisoning: A brief review. InProceedings of the Oxford Lead Symposium. Lead Ammunition: Understanding and Minimising the Risks to Human and Environmental Health (
R. J.
Delahay and
C. J.
Spray, Editors). Oxford University, Oxford, UK. pp. 8–26. Google Scholar
Thomas,
V. G. (2019). Chemical compositional standards for non-lead hunting ammunition and fishing weights. Ambio 48:1072–1078. Google Scholar
US Fish and Wildlife Service (2016). Bald and Golden Eagles: Population Demographics and Estimation of Sustainable Take in the United States, 2016 Update. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Migratory Bird Management, Washington, DC, USA. Google Scholar
Watson,
R. T.,
M.
Fuller,
M.
Pokras, and
W. G.
Hunt (Editors) (2009). Ingestion of Lead from Spent Ammunition: Implications for Wildlife and Humans. The Peregrine Fund, Boise, ID, USA. Google Scholar
Wayland,
M.,
L. K.
Wilson,
J. E.
Elliott,
M. J. R.
Miller,
T.
Bollinger,
M.
McAdie,
K.
Lagelier,
J.
Keating, and
J. M. W.
Froese (2003). Mortality, morbidity, and lead poisoning of eagles in western Canada, 1986–98. Journal of Raptor Research 37:8–18. Google Scholar
Wiemeyer,
G. M.,
M. A.
Pérez,
L.
Torres,
L.
Sampietro,
G. F.
Bravo,
N. L.
Jácome,
V.
Astore, and
S. A.
Lambertucci (2016). Repeated conservation threats across the Americas: High levels of blood and bone lead in the Andean Condor widen the problem to a continental scale. Environmental Pollution 220(Part A):672–679. Google Scholar