Tooth marks preserved on bones can yield a wealth of information regarding the behavior an ecology of the carnivores that produced them. For this reason, scientists studying both moder and fossil vertebrates have inspected and interpreted these features for decades. Although pre vious studies have provided important insights, they have also described tooth marks usin sets of terms that have been incompletely defined, have incorporated behavioral hypothese in definitions, and/or have been inconsistently applied. To address these problems, we intro duce the category-modifier (CM) system, the first system to both sort tooth marks into clearl defined main categories and use descriptive modifiers to characterize their appearance mor precisely. The CM system is designed to apply to a wide range of vertebrates, to enable com parisons across disciplines and studies, and to help researchers keep their investigations int behavioral hypotheses free of circular reasoning.

Preserved records of tooth–bone interactions, known as tooth marks, can yield a wealth of information regarding organismal behavior and ecology. For this reason, workers in a wide range of disciplines, but particularly paleontology, have inspected and interpreted these features for decades. Although previous studies have gleaned invaluable insights, they have also described tooth marks using terminological frameworks that have been incompletely defined, have incorporated behavioral hypotheses in definitions, and/or have been inconsistently applied. To address these problems, we introduce the category-modifier (CM) system, the first system to both sort tooth marks into clearly defined main categories and use descriptive modifiers to characterize their appearance more precisely. The CM system is designed to apply to a wide range of vertebrates, to enable comparisons across disciplines and studies, and to help researchers keep their investigations into behavioral hypotheses free of circular reasoning.