Although roots and tubers are dietary staples in many parts of the world, their use is difficult to document archaeologically because their organic remains are often poorly preserved in archaeological sediments. Here we describe the first diagnostic phytoliths from the underground storage organs of the important New World agricultural crops manioc or yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz), arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea L.), and llerén (Calathea allouia [Aubl.] Lindl.) and demonstrate their usefulness for identifying prehistoric root and tuber processing with a study of stone artifacts from a Valdivia 3 (2800–2400 B.C., calibrated) household at Real Alto, Ecuador. Gelatinized starch (heat-altered) and unaltered starch from maize (Zea mays L.), arrowroot, and manioc were also found on these stone tools. Our data document early evidence for manioc in Ecuador's coastal lowlands. In combination, these phytoliths and starch residues provide evidence that both raw and cooked foods were processed in this early mixed agricultural economy.

Morphometric analysis, the study of measurements of size and shape, has the potential to be an effective tool for phytolith analysis. This study reports the first attempt to apply the methodology to oats. In particular, this study was designed to determine if morphometric analysis could adequately discriminate between phytoliths produced in the inflorescence bracts of two species of oats, Avena sativa L. and Avena strigosa Schreb. Results indicate that while the taxa produce the same types of phytoliths, those phytoliths have significantly different measurements of size and shape. This suggests the technique has the potential to become a powerful research tool for investigators working in the wide variety of disciplines that utilize phytolith analysis.

The Mediterranean basin has a long and multifaceted cultural history and harbors a high biodiversity. Epidemiological studies have drawn attention to certain traditional Mediterranean diets. However, wild gathered food species, which are an important, but fast disappearing element of these diets, so far have been largely neglected in scientific studies. In this study we compare ethnobotanical data obtained from field studies conducted in Southern Italy, Southern Spain, mainland Greece, and Crete resulting in the identification of a core group of 18 culinary used wild gathered plant species. This group comprises species like Papaver rhoeas L., Sonchus asper L., S. oleraceus L., and Silene vulgaris L. We argue that the culinary use of wild gathered weedy greens evolved together with the neolithization process, since this offered the necessary ecological niches for them to thrive, thereby enriching and securing the diets of European agriculturalists. Especially wild gathered Asteraceae species seem to form a sort of proto-nutraceutical, which accounts for a significant input of biologically active compounds in the diet.

A survey of anthropological, archaeological, botanical, and historical literature reveals that two species of fox-tail millet were domesticated in the Old World (S. italica, S. pumila), and one may have been domesticated in the New World (S. parviflora). Others were prehistorically and historically gathered and eaten as cereal starch sources, including S. liebmannii, S. macrostachya, S. pallide-fusca, S. palmifolia, S. parviflora, S. pumila, S. sphacelata, S. verticillata, S. viridis, and perhaps others. The American species are briefly discussed and compared with the Old World plants, and a synopsis of food changes is presented.

El Ingenioso Hidalgo, Don Quijote de la Mancha, by Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616), is the best-known work of Spanish literature. We searched this and the other works of Cervantes for references to plants, plant communities, and products. These texts capture the customs, thoughts, beliefs, and traditions of Spanish culture in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. They also repeat literary themes of ancient Greek and Roman literature. Plant citations were grouped in three categories: plants as part of the environment, useful plants, and plants in symbolic expressions. A total of 150 species were registered, 102 of which appear in Don Quijote. The taxa with the highest frequency of occurrence are Vitis vinifera, Phoenix dactylifera, Triticum aestivum, Laurus nobilis, Rosa spp., Olea europaea, Quercus ilex, and Arundo donax. The number of references to plants and the variety of species seem to attest to a sound and intimate knowledge of plants, their relevance as a landscape feature, and their utility. Many edible, ornamental, technological, and medicinal plants are referred to either explicitly or implicitly. Several species are mentioned in a figurative sense through references to their symbolic meaning, in proverbs, idiomatic expressions, metaphors, or by mentioning them in comparisons and literary figures of speech.