Based on analysis of more than fifty species of neotropical grasshoppers with a neo XY sex determining mechanism, the authors suggest that species acquiring such mechanisms are finally extinct at the end of a relatively short evolutionary process.

Melanopline grasshoppers are known to transfer both sperm and nutritive secretions, from the accessory reproductive glands in the form of internal spermatophores, to females during mating. It remains difficult in most species, without extensive destructive sampling, to determine numbers transferred. This study documents that for Melanoplus differentialis, remnants of spermatophores, which have already discharged their contents into the spermatheca, can be found associated with the external genitalia after mating. For males mating for the first time and with virgin females, the numbers of spermatophore casings found were significantly positively correlated with copulation duration. Casings were not found on the external genitalia after most matings in M. femurrubrum. This study also examined mating behavior in M. differentialis and M. femurrubrum. In both species, mounting followed relatively simple behavior by the male, such as antenna pointing, indicating that the male was aware of a conspecific's presence. No obvious attempts at courtship were observed beyond preparations to mount.

Version 2 of the Orthoptera Species File Online is now available on the Internet. The database tables are designed to provide improved reliability of the data contained. Other improvements include availability of more ranks in the hierarchy, more flexibility in the user's selection of information to be displayed, new search options, better conformity with the International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, and automation of many editing functions. Current data cover Ensifera; data for Caelifera will be added. Orthopterists are invited to participate by editing data for groups in which they are working.

Bryophyma debilis, a poorly known grasshopper from the wooded savanna of West Africa, was reared for the first time under laboratory conditions. Morphological descriptions of adults and nymphs were made previously. We describe some behavioral traits (aggressiveness, stridulation, egg-laying), and record data on nymphal development and reproductive biology.

In contrast to pests developing in close association with a particular host crop, locusts and grasshoppers are often controlled in natural or semi-natural landscapes, exposing structurally and functionally diverse communities to agrochemicals, chemicals to which they are not adapted. This suggests that insecticide-induced perturbations may be severe. On the other hand, with acridids being highly mobile, exposure of non-target biota at any one location tends to be rare, and insecticides might be seen as yet another component in a canon of stochastic and deterministic, natural or human-induced environmental catastrophes and selective forces, shaping communities and ecosystems. Moreover, habitat loss is by far the most important single threat to biodiversity, so why should doubt be cast on the potential and resilience of populations to recover from occasional insecticide stress? This paper reviews the environmental impact, as well as ecological and conceptual characteristics of acridid pest control. It concludes that ecologically significant risks may arise, in particular in ecosystems exposed to multiple stressors. Four priorities in ecological risk assessment and acridid pest management are proposed: 1) delimitation and characterization of sensitive areas within locust and grasshopper habitats, 2) ecosystem-specific, long-term field studies and operational monitoring, 3) real-time stewardship of control campaigns, with adequate participation of stakeholders, and 4) incorporation of the precautionary principle into decision-making and risk management.

Three instances were observed in Costa Rica, of an adult cockroach feeding on or palpating the waxy material secreted on the tegmina of a fulgorid; in one instance, the cockroach was a female Macrophyllodromia sp. and the homopteran a fulgorid, Enchophora sanguinea. In another, the cockroach was Macrophyllodromia maximiliani and the fulgorid was Copidocephala guttata. These are the first observations of trophobiosis in a cockroach. Brief descriptions of known species of Macrophyllodromia, and the male genitalia of 2 species are given.

The revision of several taxa previously attributed to the plesion ‘Protorthoptera’ yielded information about the venation pattern of Orthoptera and the sister-group relationships of Orthoptera. A new wing venation pattern is proposed, i.e., (1) a basal composite stem M CuA, distally separated into M and CuA; (2) distal free CuA fused with the anterior branch of CuPa (CuPa ‘alpha’). We consider the clade Orthoptera as an apomorphy-based group (sensu Brochu & Sumrall), on the basis of this complex structure and, also by the presence of two branches of MA, MA1 and MA2 (but reversed in some recent taxa, having a MA simple). In the stem group of Orthoptera, the free part of CuA is fused with CuPa, i.e., CuPa is not ramified into CuPa ‘alpha’ and CuPa ‘beta’. Also, MA is simple.

The control of grasshoppers in Brazil has been based exclusively on chemical insecticides (fenitrothion and malathion). However, as these products are known to be harmful to the environment, their massive use has caused concerns. In the face of pressure against their use, the development of alternative methods became imperative. Some species of entomopathogenic fungi can supplement or even replace chemical insecticides in the control of grasshoppers. An integrated research project began in Brazil in 1993 with the specific objective of developing bioinsecticides based on entomopathogenic microorganisms, especially fungi, to control grasshoppers. Activities centered in surveys, characterization, production, formulation, and field evaluation. Emphasis was given to developing the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum as the most promising biocontrol candidate. It is now known that this pathogen can be used efficiently in the control of Rhammatocerus schistocercoides in Brazil and we are verifying its effects on non-target organisms, including other Orthoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera.

A recently developed PCR-based assay, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), has been used for assessing phylogenetic relationships and the genetic structure of populations in many organisms including insects. Preliminary studies show that the procedure does not work well in acridid grasshoppers since it leads to very large numbers of indistinct bands, probably due to the large size of the genome. To overcome this drawback, we developed long primer sets with four selective nucleotides, and used these for the grasshoppers Chorthippus brunneus and C. jacobsi in northern Spain. This approach has allowed us to reduce the number of bands, so that we can compare homologous bands easily. Using the revised method, it appears that the degree of interspecific genetic differentiation of C. brunneus and C. jacobsi is relatively small.

Seven new species of Homeomastax are described, two from Panama and five from Costa Rica; a further new species from Colombia is noted, but not described owing to the lack of a male. The genus now contains 22 species. On the basis of the male genitalia the genus can be divided into 4 species groups, represented by the species surda, bouvieri, kressi and silvicola respectively; those species known only from the female (dentata, richteri, annulipes, and the new Colombian form) cannot yet be arranged in this scheme. Apart from male phallic characters, the species are externally recognizable only by the male and female subgenital plates and by morphometric ratios, especially E/F (elytron: femur). Of the three species redescribed by Rehn & Rehn (1934), the originally missing male of surda Burr and the female of veraguae Hebard are shown to have been correctly assigned by those authors. Their redescription of H. dentata Saussure, however, is invalid, as the type is a different taxon. The phallic complex of the genus is described in detail, and observations on copulation and the nature of the spermatophore are presented. We suggest that the hooked and tapered end of the spermatophore may be used as an intromittent organ by the copulating male.

The natural history and geographical distribution of the genus is reviewed; it occurs west and north of the Andean chains, though it extends up the major inter-Andean valleys of Northern Colombia, and ranges from Ecuador to Honduras. The four species groups are largely disjunct geographically. The bouvieri-group is South American, with an outlying species (brachyptera) in Central Panama; the surda-group is confined to the Pacific slope, the kressi-group to the Caribbean slope, and the silvicola-group is known only from the Caribbean slope and mountains of northern Costa Rica and southern Nicaragua.

Helicomastax n. gen. is externally almost identical with Homeomastax Descamps 1979, but has radically different genital structures. In the male the ectophallic sclerites give rise on their anterior medial surface to a pair of chitinous filaments. These enter the spermatophore sac dorsally, run in a circular course within the sac and emerge from its opening ventrally and posteriorly as two fine whip-like projections, which extend dorsally above the ectophallic sclerites. The complex of spermatophore sac, endophallic plate and ectophallic sclerites, forms a sclerotized capsule; the posterior extremities of the ectophallic plate are not inserted into the ectophallic membrane, as in other eumastacine genera, but are free and project to the exterior. The spermathecal duct of the female is longer and more convoluted than in other eumastacine genera, presumably in association with the filaments of the male, which are hypothesized to be inserted into the duct during copulation. The genus is represented by two new species (H. mnioides and H. copensis) from the mountains of Central and Western Panama. Both are sympatric with local species of Homeomastax.

In most central European grasshopper populations, matings are very rarely observed. For five species we here quantify how frequently matings are observed. In total, only 78 matings were recorded over a period of 1100 observation hours in five acridid grasshopper species. We formally define the term mating activity (MA) as the proportion of individuals mating at a given time. MA in Oedipoda germanica, but not Euthystira brachyptera, took place preferentially around noon. In Stenobothrus lineatus, Gomphocerippus rufus and Chorthippus parallelus, matings possibly extended into the night. We also found evidence for a seasonal decrease in MA in S. lineatus and G. rufus but not in C. parallelus and O. germanica. Mating females were younger than the population average in S. lineatus, G. rufus and O. germanica. A review of the literature revealed a seasonal decline in MA in other species as well. Diel mating peaks are not very distinct, though some species seem to mate exclusively at night, some have peaks during the hottest parts of the day, and a third group seems to avoid the hot midday periods.

Since October 2000, the commercial product Green Guard®, based on the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum produced by SGB Pty. Ltd. Wodonga, Victoria, has been used by the Australian Plague Locust Commission for operational control of the Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes terminifera. The production, formulation, storage, efficacy and non-target effects are reviewed. Between October 2000 and January 2001 over 23,000 ha were treated at doses of 12 - 25 g/ha in 500 ml of oil. Under most temperate or hot conditions, control of over 90% of Australian plague locusts was obtained by day 14 post spraying, but under less favorable conditions control could take up to 21 d. The factors which make Green Guard® attractive for locust control in Australia include low cost, the absence of environmental effects, especially on aquatic organisms, and its suitability for use in organic beef production areas and where the use of chemical pesticides is undesirable. Large-scale field trials against migratory locusts, Locusta migratoria, have shown that doses of 50–75 g/ha are effective. Spur-throated locusts, Austracris guttulosa, are very susceptible in the laboratory, but field trials have proved difficult to assess because of the high mobility of the adults and the absence of hopper bands at the nymphal stage. Results with the wingless grasshopper, Phaulacridium vittatum, have been variable, with the control being difficult to achieve during cool weather. Laboratory studies on Beauveria bassiana have shown that isolates of this fungus, derived from field-infected grasshoppers, are very virulent and will kill better under cool conditions.

Locust control in Africa has been the focus of considerable controversy over the last 15 y. Many control aspects were called into question following the last large plagues of 1987–88 (Desert Locust) and 1996–2000 (Malagasy Migratory Locust): recommended preventative strategy, environmental impact of insecticides used, socioeconomic importance of the locusts. Many projects were launched to improve survey and control methods and find alternative solutions to chemical pesticide treatments. Recent progress is reviewed. Survey and application techniques showed dramatic improvements with GIS, GPS technology and precision spraying. Barrier applications are again available, thanks to new persistent pesticides. Biological control with mycopesticides now appears very promising and undoubtedly the technique will gradually be adopted. The environmental aspects are taken into better account and an IPM approach is now possible. The EMPRES program of FAO is committed to reinforcing national early warning and early reaction capacities for preventative control of the Desert Locust. In Madagascar a new National Locust Center has recently been set up. In many places local research capabilities are improving.

However, certain very fundamental aspects remain unsolved. Among others, the sustainability of preventative control systems is an important concern. Many affected countries are amongst the poorest in the world. They currently do not have sufficient financial resources to fund intensive control campaigns, nor even the basic minimum to ensure prevention. A realistic solution to prevent locust plagues requires stronger commitment of governments and donors, sustainable small but flexible national locust control units for prevention, and especially the creation of emergency action plans, ready to quickly mobilize and organize complementary resources in the event of an upsurge. Emergency funds are thus essential and should be created. Locust control seems now to depend more on political and institutional choices than on scientific and technological innovations.

Two new species of Megacrania Kaup in Indonesia are described and compared with other related species. There are now three confirmed species in Indonesia.

Studies on the genus Extatosoma Gray 1833 have revealed that there are two valid Australasian species represented by Extatosoma tiararum tiaratum, Extatosoma tiaratum bufonium stat. n., Extatosoma popa popa, and Extatosoma popa carlbergi stat. n. A lectotype has been designated for Extatosoma bufonium. The male of Extatosoma popa popa is described for the first time. Adults (including differently shaped female specimens) and eggs of the two Extatosoma species are figured for comparison. Variation within species is discussed, which includes size, color, degree of spination, shape of legs and expansions on abdominal segments. A literature review and summary of distribution records are provided.

Scale is the fundamental conceptual problem in assessing the sustainability or value of controlling grasshoppers or locusts. Using case studies from North America (United States: Wyoming), Africa (Eritrea), and Asia (Russia: Irkutsk), we analyzed the viability of control programs. There are at least four dimensions to acridid pest management. At the geopolitical scale, all three cases reveal that although the greatest cost/risk of acridid outbreaks accrues locally, distant governments play a primary role despite recent, undirected trends toward decentralization. Examination of the social scale reveals that in all three cases, the individual farm/ranch is the fundamental unit of concern, but these units place high value on preventing acridid infestations from spreading to neighboring lands. None of the systems appear to be driven by the agrochemical industry; rather, the motive force is food security (Eritrea), food quality (Wyoming), or both (Irkutsk). With respect to the interest scale, in all three systems agriculturalists have nothing to gain and much to lose from acridid outbreaks, as compared to the general public (no gains, modest losses), agrochemical industries (low gains, no losses), and governments (low gains, modest losses). In terms of the temporal scale, extremely rapid (and localized) losses and short-term (annual) productivity define the situation for farmers/ranchers, while governments exhibit far slower and longer-term responses and perspectives. From these findings, the keys and obstacles to sustainable acridid pest management are discussed.

Control of grasshoppers and locusts has traditionally relied on synthetic insecticides, and for emergency situations, this is unlikely to change. Most locust control operations in Africa are conducted in ‘crisis mode’, and are affected by military situations which leave little room for flexibility. Nevertheless, there is a growing awareness of the environmental impact of acridid control options and the demand for a biological product is strong.

A decade of research on the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum has led to some very positive field results. Trials in Niger and Australia have shown that the fungus can be formulated and applied under standard operating conditions, and that control is effective and long-lasting. Most importantly, the products are highly selective, safe to use and we have not been able to detect any side-effects. This means that the natural enemy fauna is preserved and may contribute to control. Metarhizium is nonetheless slow-acting compared with chemical pesticides, and its place in an Integrated Pest Management framework needs to be considered with this property in mind.

We can see an emerging IPM framework, based on good detection and prediction, chemical pesticides for swarm control and real emergencies, and Metarhizium for outbreaks with no immediate risk of crop damage. With Metarhizium established as part of the IPM portfolio, there will be scope to explore further biocontrol options, such as the microsporidian Nosema locustae and the hymenopteran egg parasitoids Scelio spp.

We studied the occurrence of glands in preserved specimens of Vanzoliniella spp., using a new comparative scanning electron microscopy technique. The method proposed here is an alternative to histological studies that cannot proceed due to the unavailability of well-preserved or recently collected specimens. It can also be used to study other subsurface structures. Some hypotheses to explain the function of the meso and metanotal glands in male crickets are presented.

In Australia, where approximately 80% of the land area is arid or semiarid, rainfall is the major factor limiting acridid populations. Rainfall is not only limiting in terms of quantity but also in being highly variable, both temporally and spatially. In this paper, the main adaptations seen in Australian Acrididae to overcome limiting rainfall are discussed with special reference to economically important species.

In the arid to semiarid subtropics (lat 23–33°S) rainfall is slightly summer-dominant but extended dry periods can occur in any season. Chortoicetes terminifera, the main pest species, avoids dry periods through embryonic diapause or survives dry periods as quiescent eggs or adults. Migration is critical for survival as it allows locusts to locate areas of localized rainfall. Outbreaks are frequent and develop when enough rain falls to allow continuous breeding over three to four generations.

In temperate areas of subcoastal southern Australia, summers are dry and most rain falls in winter or early spring. Austroicetes cruciata, a univoltine pest species, avoids the dry summers by having an embryonic diapause between summer and early winter.

In the tropical north (lat 13–23°S), rainfall is strongly summer-dominant and Austracris guttulosa, another univoltine species, survives the dry winter as immature adults in reproductive diapause. Adults mature after feeding on the green vegetation present following early rains of the wet season. But the early rains are often localized and adults migrate until they encounter these localized areas of rain. Adults then mature and lay, but the survival of their offspring eggs and very young nymphs is assured only if there is further rain within 6 weeks. Outbreaks develop only when there are several years of regular rains both in outbreak areas and adjacent areas of the arid zone.

Locusta migratoria does not have a stage that can survive extended dry periods. Consequently, it is mainly restricted to subcoastal areas of moderate rainfall. In the main outbreak areas of subtropical Queensland, populations often decline during the commonly dry winters but outbreaks develop when good rain falls in all seasons.

During the concluding 20 y of the 20^th century, numerous interesting finds of Polyneoptera have been made. These include the discoveries of a new higher taxon of recent Ensifera, new genera of relict recent Ensiferan groups, and new genera and species of recent Orthoptera and Dictyoptera with remarkable morphological characteristics. There have been a series of paleontological finds, including new higher taxa, oldest representatives of some other higher taxa, and several interesting problematic and enigmatic fossils. Some of these finds clarify difficult problems of classification and evolution of Polyneoptera. A new genus and species, Aboiloilomimus sichuanensis, is described.