The New World subgenus Sarcophaga (Neobellieria) Blanchard is revised. The subgenus as previously recognized was polyphyletic. Five species, Sarcophaga semimarginalis Hall, Sarcophaga sternalis (Reinhard), Sarcophaga subdiscalis Aldrich, Sarcophaga triplasia Wulp, and Sarcophaga yorkii Parker, are removed from the subgenus. The remaining five species of Neobellieria are paraphyletic relative to the subgenus Tolucamyia Dodge; accordingly, Tolucamyia is synonymized with Neobellieria. Neobellieria is redefined to include five species assigned previously to Neobellieria (Sarcophaga bullata Parker, Sarcophaga citellivora Shewell, Sarcophaga cooleyi Parker, Sarcophaga libera Aldrich, and Sarcophaga polistensis Hall), three species assigned previously to Tolucamyia [Sarcophaga cavagnaroi (Dodge), Sarcophaga schrameli Dodge, and Sarcophaga sigilla Reinhard], and one new species, Sarcophaga (Neobellieria) longisterna Giroux & Wheeler. Sarcophaga marstoniana (Dodge) is synonymized with S. sigilla. Lectotypes are designated for Sarcophaga bullata and S. cooleyi. Although there are relatively few rearing records for most Neobellieria species, some species develop primarily in vertebrates or vertebrate carrion; this group includes myiasis-causing species and species of importance in forensic entomology. Two species (S. libera and S. polistensis) are associated with nests of Hymenoptera.

Three new genera with three new species and two new species of two known genera, all in the family of Xyelotomidae (Hymenoptera), are described and illustrated. These specimens were collected from the Middle Jurassic of Daohugou, Jiulongshan Formation, and the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous of Dawangzhangzi, Yixian Formation, of China. A key to the known and new genera of Xyelotomidae is provided. Fourteen fossil genera with 20 species found so far from the Early Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous imply that Xyelotomidae was diverse and abundant during that period. New findings reported here provide additional evolutionary and transitional evidence of forewing Sc vein changed from two-branched to one-branched, to two separate parts, to apical part forming a crossvein, and finally to vestigial in Xyelotomidae from the Early Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous.

Anatomical features of male and female Scolytus opacus Blackman, infesting Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.), and Scolytus abietis Blackman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), infesting Abies grandis (Douglas) and Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.), were compared by light and scanning electron microscopy. Diagnostic features involve body size; striations on the underside of the head, which have a stridulatory function; shape of the submentum; and several characters on abdominal sternites 1 and 2. Because of differences in these features of the two taxa, and because the two populations infest different tree species and are sympatric in Idaho, we reinstate S. abietis as a valid species.

Hydrelliaeucoila egeria (Hymenoptera: Cynipoidea: Figitidae), a new genus and species obtained from pupae of Hydrellia sp. (Diptera: Ephydridae) mining in Egeria densa Planchon (Hydrocharitaceae), is described. Diagnostic photographs and data about the biology of this parasitoid are included.

Host plant use by nymphs and adults of the nonnative species Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) was investigated proximal to the location of its introduction, Allentown, PA. The seasonality of H. halys in the United States had not been thoroughly studied before this work. It is reported to have ≈300 host plants in its native range that could make control and identification of small populations difficult. Weekly beat samples were conducted beginning at petal fall (mid-April) in Pyrus spp. until the first frost (mid-October) from 2005 to 2007 on a variety of ornamental trees, shrubs, and agricultural crops. Egg masses were first observed on Paulownia tomentosa Thunb. the first week of June. In 2006 and 2007, Fraxinus americana L. was an important mid- and late season host for adults. Nymphal abundance differed seasonally. P. tomentosa supported high densities during the early season, whereas Viburnum opulus variety americanum Aiton was the preferred mid-season host, and Viburnum prunifolium L. and Rosa rugosa Thunb. had the highest densities of nymphs during the late season. Abundance of nymphs was strongly associated with maturing fruit or pods. All plants surveyed supported populations of H. halys, suggesting a large host range. In late August, a large adult population peak was observed (850–1,000 degree days [DD]), shortly after the DD accumulation for development to imaginal eclosion, supporting hypotheses that H. halys is likely univoltine in this region. Relative to native pentatomid species, H. halys was by far the predominant species collected in samples on ornamental and cultivated crops.

Nine Satsuma citrus orchards (seven conventionally sprayed and two unsprayed) in southern Alabama were sampled (mainly leaf samples) for predacious mites at eight different sampling dates from March 2005 to February 2006. At least 29 species of predacious mites from nine families (Anystidae, Ascidae, Bdellidae, Cheyletidae, Cunaxidae, Erythraeidae, Eupalopsellidae, Phytoseiidae, and Stigmaeidae) were identified. In addition, six primarily fungivorous species from three families (Parasitidae, Tydeidae, and Tarsonemidae) were recorded. Predacious mites in the families Phytoseiidae (18 species) and Stigmaeidae (one species) were the most abundant. The dominant species were Typhlodromalus peregrinus (Muma) and Proprioseiopsis mexicanus (Garman) (Phytoseiidae), and Agistemus floridanus Gonzalez (Stigmaeidae). Phytoseiid mites were most abundant in the spring with populations declining at the start of the summer and remaining at very low levels through the fall and winter. Analysis of fruit, leaf and orchard ground cover plant samples collected in fall (October) 2005 showed greater abundance of phytoseiid mites on ground cover plants than on citrus fruit and leaves, suggesting that ground cover plants may serve as overwintering reservoirs for predacious mites. In general, predacious mites were relatively more abundant in the conventionally sprayed orchards compared with the unsprayed orchards, as were the two key phytophagous species, Panonychus citri (McGregor) and Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Ashmead). The results are discussed in relation to the potential of the dominant predacious mite species as candidates for biological control of key phytophagous mites on Alabama Satsuma citrus.

The tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens (F.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a polyandrous species of economic importance on the American continent. This sexual behavior allows for the presence of multiple spermatophores inside a female and the possibility of different males fertilizing the female's offspring, which can make insecticide resistance management or sterile insect release programs particularly challenging. The presence of spermatophores in a female can greatly influence her behavior, physiology, and offspring production. The role that these reproductive structures have is directly influenced by their size and the amount and type of substances that they contain as they are passed into the female during copulation. In this study, we investigated the role that male feeding has on mating potential, including the basic chemical composition and coloration of three sequentially produced spermatophores by male moths that were fed nothing, water, sucrose solution, or nectar. Male moth feeding had a direct influence on spermatophore weight, which was used as an indicator of polyandrous behavior. Nectar-fed moths produced heavier spermatophores and copulated in greater proportion than moths exposed to the other treatments. The total sugar and protein content of spermatophores was not influenced by the type of male feeding. Red or pink spermatophores were more prevalent in the first-produced spermatophores, diminishing in proportion on the second, and increasing again on the third-produced spermatophore, but this coloration proportion was prevalent of males not fed or fed only water. There were no differences in the chemical composition of the different colored spermatophores. These results indicate that polygynous behavior on H. virescens can be influenced by the type of male feeding.

The progress of embryonic development may be observed in eggs of the rice stink bug, Oebalus pugnax (F.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), because obvious color or color pattern changes may be viewed through the transparent chorion. All viable egg masses of the rice stink bug progressed through similar color or color pattern changes at the six constant temperatures that ranged from 21.1 to 37.8°C. Whenever the length of time within a pattern was expressed as a percentage of the total developmental time, the proportion of time within a pattern was not influenced by changes in temperature. However, temperatures used in this study were within the linear range for total development and within each color pattern of the rice stink bug eggs described in this article. The upper lethal constant temperature was estimated to be 37.8°C. Although phases of blastokinesis could be viewed, most were not related to color patterns in this study, except the katatrepsis phase, which is pictorially described. Rice stink bug egg masses consisted of two rows, the eggs being in contact but those of one row alternate in position with the other row. Embryos in both rows were oriented with the ventral surface toward the center of the egg mass.

The glassy-winged sharpshooter, Homalodisca vitripennis (Germar) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), is a major pest of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) in Texas and California. It is a known vector of Pierce's disease and is considered the most significant insect pest threatening the grape industry in the United States. We evaluated the preference of four host plants for feeding and oviposition by H. vitripennis adult females. We also measured the suitability of nine host plants for the growth and development of eggs and nymphs under greenhouse and laboratory conditions, respectively. Embryonic survival exceeded 85% on all tested host plants, with the exception of sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. More than 80% of the nymphs successfully reached adulthood on sweet potato, black-eyed pea [Vigna unguiculata unguiculata (L.) Walp.], and eggplant (Solanum melongena L). Developmental time of immature H. vitripennis nymphs was significantly affected by the plants on which they fed. The nymphs were more likely to die during the first instar on host plants such as Texas mountain laurel Evonymus japonica (Thunb.), or citrange Citrus sinensis × Poncirus trifoliata. Host suitability (nutrients) and stem and leaf texture, which varied among host plant species selected, seem to both play a significant role in nymphal development. Adult females were able to feed on woody plants, but a preference for black-eyed pea and sweet potato was observed. In captivity and given the plant choices offered, they deposited more egg masses on hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.) and black-eyed pea.

The psyllids Diaphorina citri (Kuwayama) and Bactericera cockerelli (Sulc) (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) are vectors of Candidatus Liberibacter spp., bacterial agents of serious agricultural diseases. The rapidly expanding geographical distributions of these diseases dictate increasing urgency for their control. Therefore, it is important to gain a full understanding of the psyllid digestive system in which the vector—pathogen interactions begin. Their midgut is looped so that the foregut—midgut and midgut—hindgut transitional regions are grafted together to form a composite tube within a filter chamber sheath. Unwanted sap components could thus be extracted directly into the hindgut, bypassing digestion. The esophageal lumen enters the chamber axially to become the inner midgut lumen. The upper half of this midgut section is bulbous while the lower half is tubular. The tube lumen exits the chamber to become the external midgut lumen, which loops through the hemocoel and reenters the chamber, becoming the inner hindgut lumen. The inner hindgut tracks the adherent inner midgut in an antiparallel direction. The composite tube is helically wound and undergoes one hairpin turn. The inner hindgut straps diagonally across the bulb and then exits the chamber next to the esophagus as the outer hindgut to anus. The source of honeydew, whether filtrate, midgut waste, or both, is questioned. Paired, spherical, primary salivary glands each have a digitate accessory gland and a lateral duct that leads to the stylets. The accessory gland lumen is lined exclusively with intima, whereas the primary gland apical cell membranes are indicated to be more complex.

Genetic diversity levels within and between the two commercial breeding areas in the United States were analyzed using the DraI restriction fragment length polymorphism of the COI-COII mitochondrial region and 10 polymorphic microsatellite loci. The western commercial breeding population (WCBP) and the southeastern commercial breeding population (SCBP) were sampled in 1993–1994 and again in 2004–2005. The goal of this study was to characterize the genetic composition of these populations and to measure potential changes in genetic diversity and composition across the sampling period. The mitochondrial DNA haplotypes C1 and C2, characteristic of the most popular bee strains (Italians and Carniolans, respectively) sold in the United States, were the dominant haplotypes at both sample dates. The frequency of Apis mellifera mellifera M haplotypes, M4, M7, and M7′, decreased during the 10-yr span. An A1 haplotype characteristic of Africanized bees was found in the SCBP from 2005. Microsatellite analysis showed there was a loss of alleles in both the WCBP and SCBP, but the losses were not significant due to simultaneous gains of new alleles into these populations between 1993 and 2005. Genetic differences that occurred between the 1993–1994 WCBP and SCBP were still detectable in these populations sampled a decade later, suggesting that these populations could be useful sources of diversity for each other in the future.

The population structure of the twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, and its sibling species the carmine spider mite, Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisduval) (Acari: Tetranychidae), from China were investigated using microsatellite markers. The two species exhibited significant polymorphism but generally low genetic diversity. The genetic differentiation between populations of T. urticae and T. cinnabarinus was extreme and was significantly related to geographical distance between the populations (Mantel test). The overall level of genetic diversity of T. cinnabarinus was significantly higher than that of T. urticae. However, the various geographical levels of T. cinnabarinus were lower than those of T. urticae. The average pairwise F_ST between geographical populations of T. cinnabarinus was far higher than that of T. urticae, suggesting that the genetic differentiation of T. cinnabarinus was much higher than that of T. urticae. A comparison of T. urticae and T. cinnabarinus collected in adjacent and sympatric areas provided no evidence that genetic differentiation was related to geographical distances, suggesting a lack of gene flow between populations of these two species. In a phylogenetic analysis, seven geographical populations of T. urticae clustered in one branch and six geographical populations of T. cinnabarinus were distributed in other branches.

The Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), is primarily reported from subtropical and warm temperate regions, whereas Coptotermes gestroi (Wasmann) is reported from many areas of the tropics. Taiwan is one of a few areas where the distributions of the two species overlap. By analyzing partial mitochondrial sequences of COII, 12S rRNA, and 16S rRNA, we found that most Taiwanese C. formosanus populations were closely related to Japanese and some Chinese populations and that Taiwanese C. gestroi populations were most closely related to those from the Philippines and Hawaii rather than populations from Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. The intraspecific variation of C. formosanus was 0.7–0.8% for three genes among seven Taiwanese populations, whereas all Taiwanese C. gestroi populations had identical sequences. The results support that Taiwan may be a center of origin for C. formosanus, but a recent introduction site for C. gestroi.

We tested whether long copulation duration is more likely to have evolved in nonterritorial odonate species than in territorial species, given that nonterritorial males do not incur the costs of territory defense. A phylogenetic comparative method that controls for the phylogenetic nonindependence of species was used to compare copulation duration among 46 species of the two main odonate suborders (Anisoptera and Zygoptera). Copulation duration of nonterritorial anisopteran species was longer than for territorial dragonflies; however, this relationship was not found for Zygoptera. Long copulations in Anisoptera may be related to a male's ability to manipulate a female's stored sperm. It is suggested that constraints that prevent a territorial male from lengthening copulation do not seem to operate in Zygoptera. Other selective processes (i.e., cryptic female choice and/or sexual conflict) may also be important determinants of copulation duration in the Zygoptera. To our knowledge, this is the first exploration of the relation copulation duration and mating systems in insects.

The flexibility in behavior and strategies used by ants is both individual and collective. Here, we studied the behavior of individual ants during one-on-one interactions to gain insight into how resident ant species behave when they encounter incipient red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) colonies. The one-on-one interactions revealed that the red imported fire ant and Pheidole dentata (Mayr) were more “aggressive” compared with Solenopsis molesta (Say), Forelius pruinosus (Roger), Tetramorium bicarinatum (Nylander), Monomorium minimum (Buckley), and Monomorium pharonis (L.), which were more “defensive.” All of the species displayed “disturbed” behaviors such as excessive grooming, paralysis, and restlessness after being in contact with red imported fire ant. The apparent disparity in one-on-one interactions between a particular species and red imported fire ant illustrates how variation in these behavioral strategies can influence their success in defending themselves against red imported fire ant. The ant species tested also displayed a sequential behavior during the interaction, in which, certain subsequent behaviors were dependent on the preceding behaviors.

The elongation and sharp teeth of ant mandibles are considered important adaptations that have contributed to ants successful colonization of terrestrial habitats worldwide. In extant ant species, mandibles function as hunting and defense weapons, as well as multipurpose tools for excavating soil, cutting leaves, capturing and butchering prey, harvesting seeds, and transporting brood. This article reports that the mandibles in the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren, are functionally ambidextrous. Individuals opened and closed each mandible in synchrony or independently depending on the requirement of the task at hand. Upon completion of a task, individuals were without a preference in the orientation of mandible overlap—right overlap or left overlap. Orientation of mandible overlap before and after performing a task was also examined in nine other ant species. No overlap orientation preference was observed in any of these ant species, suggesting that ambidextrous mandibles are a universal trait in ants. These findings add an increment of knowledge to the diverse functions of ant mandibles.

The spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clemens) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is considered the most important pest threatening coniferous forests of eastern North America. Its major hosts are balsam fir [Abies balsamea (L.)], white spruce [Picea glauca (Moench) Voss], red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.), and black spruce [Picea mariana (Mill.) Britton, Sterns and Poggenb.], all of which contain antiherbivore defensive compounds, including tannins. Tannins are known to act as feeding deterrents, digestibility reducers, and toxins in numerous insects and specifically to reduce growth and survival in the spruce budworm. Using two-choice feeding assays, we show that tannic acid deters spruce budworm feeding, whereas tannins extracted from white spruce and containing 97.8% condensed tannins stimulate it. Moreover, a dose-response relationship was demonstrated for both types of tannin. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a phagostimulatory role of condensed tannins in any insect. Tannic acid only deterred feeding when in solution with sucrose but remained undetected when in solution alone, whereas the condensed spruce tannins produced a positive response alone, and this response was increased by the addition of sucrose. Based on these results, we speculate that both types of tannins produce their respective effects through different mechanisms: tannic acid seems to interfere with sucrose detection, whereas spruce tannins can evidently stimulate feeding directly in this insect. For both types of tannins, the insects do not seem to be able to detect the 0.75% tannin concentration, suggesting a possible response threshold. Rearing insects on diets containing tannic acid revealed possible effects of aversion learning and of induction when tested in feeding assays with tannic acid and spruce tannins, respectively.

The olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae), is a newly invasive pest of olives, Olea europaea L., in California. The table olive industry is located in California's Central Valley, where daily high summer temperatures can be >35.0°C. This study investigated the effects of high temperatures (heat stress) and food conditions on the flight performance of B. oleae in laboratory flight mill tests. Flies were provided food (honey and hydrolyzed yeast) and water for a 1-wk preconditioning period and then subjected to 24-h preflight exposure to diurnal temperature regimes (low-high temperatures of 18.3–35.0°C and 18–37.8°C) and deprivation of food. Flies with the preflight stress conditions had significantly lower flight performance (1,305 m and 0.989 h at 18.3–35.0°C and 1,152 m and 0.966 h at 18.3–37.8°C) than control files that were held under no-stress preflight conditions (constant 23.9°C, food, and water) and flew 1,982 m for 1.54 h. Flight distance and duration were further reduced when no water was provided during the 24-h preflight exposure to high temperature stress. Flight distance and duration also were decreased when the preflight exposure period was increased to 2 and 3 d. When flies were deprived of food and water during the preconditioning period, there was significant adult mortality and flight performance was poor (<50 m and <2 min) after 24-h preflight exposure to either the 18.3–35.0°C or the 18.3–37.8°C temperature regime and deprivation of food. Heat stress and food deprivation also reduced postflight fecundity and adult longevity. The results are discussed with respect to the ability of B. oleae to survive summer heat and food deprivation by dispersing to refuges with food, water, and shelter.