The leafroller Argyrotaenia montezumae (Walsingham) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) was found feeding on blackberry leaves (Rubus sp.) in three localities of Michoacán, Mexico, for the first time in 2008. Several biological parameters of this insect were assessed under laboratory conditions (25 ± 2° C, 75 ± 5% relative humidity, and a photoperiod of 16:8 [L:D] h). The egg, larval (five instars), prepupal, pupal, and adult stages lasted 7.28, 21.62, 3.89, 8.37, and 17.64 d, respectively. Larval growth of A. montezumae followed Dyar's rule, and the growth ratios for the widths between the genae and the distance between the frontal setae of the head were 1.43 and 1.54, respectively. Female and male pupae weighed 33 and 21 ± 0.56 mg, respectively. The adult sex ratio (percentage of females) was 48%. When females oviposited on the inner walls of a transparent plastic container, the cumulative number of eggs per female over a lifetime was 391, with preoviposition and oviposition periods of 3.5 and 8.1 d, respectively. Peak oviposition activity was recorded when female age ranged from 4 to 8 d (47.35 and 52.12 eggs per female, respectively). The egg hatching percentage was 92.24%. The influence of the oviposition substrate color on the fecundity of A. montezumae was assessed using high-density polyethylene of different colors. The overall number of eggs per female was higher on green (352.5), blue (327.86), and yellow (250.60) substrates than on transparent (192.22) and pink (197.00) substrates.

Autotomy, induced limb loss, is a trait that is effectively used throughout the animal kingdom to avoid predation and entrapment, and has independently evolved multiple times. Within the insect clade, species have been observed autotomizing legs, antennae, cerci, and caudal filaments. However, our knowledge of which species autotomize and the frequency of limb loss in natural populations is quite limited. Understanding autotomy's diversity can provide key insights into how this extreme trait has evolved and is a first step in understanding the costs and benefits of this behavior. Here, we quantify the frequency of leg loss and investigate the ability to autotomize in nine coreid (Insecta: Hemiptera: Coreidae) species (Euthochtha galeator F., Anasa andresii Guérin-Méneville, Anasa tristis DeGeer, Narnia femorata Stål, Chelinidea vittiger McAtee, Leptoglossus phyllopus L., Acanthocephala declivis Say, Acanthocephala terminalis Dallas, and Acanthocephala femorata F.), across five tribes. In wild populations of these species, limb absence ranged from 7.9 to 21.5%. In the lab, all nine species investigated were able to autotomize. These discoveries are particularly interesting because some coreids use their hind legs in intrasexual competitions for access to females; therefore, autotomy in coreids can mean permanently losing a sexually selected weapon. These observations provide a more complete understanding of autotomy's diversity while also developing new hypotheses regarding the interaction between autotomy, sexual selection, and natural selection.

Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois) and Lygus hesperus Knight are among the most important pests affecting production of cotton in the United States. Lygus spp. use a cell rupture feeding strategy. However, the precise stylet-probing behaviors of adult Lygus spp. are not well understood or quantifiably related to cotton damage. The long-term goals of our research are to: 1) relate stylet probing to damage, and 2) quantitatively compare L. lineolaris feeding among resistant and susceptible host plants. The specific objectives of this study were to apply the latest technology in electropenetrography (EPG) to record adult, prereproductive Lygus spp. feeding, to identify and characterize all the waveforms, and to hypothesize their biological meanings. We used a third-generation AC–DC electropenetrograph to record nonprobing and probing waveforms of adult bugs on pinhead (<3 mm) cotton squares, and constructed a waveform library from the output. Recordings were obtained with both AC and DC applied signals and at different input impedances (10⁶–10⁹ Ω). Three nonprobing waveforms were identified and visually correlated: Standing still (S), walking (W), and antennation (A). Probing waveforms were classified as: cell rupturing (CR), transition (T), and ingestion (I). T waveform is the first finding of an X wave for a nonsalivary sheath feeder in Hemiptera, implying that tasting/testing/acceptance behaviors can be performed by a cell rupture feeder. While waveform I is not performed in every probe, when performed, its appearance and structure were affected by applied signal and input impedance. Overall, time spent in nonprobing behaviors was longer than time spent on probing behaviors.

Cydia pomonella (L.) is a worldwide dreadful pest in apple fruit production. In Morocco, where high temperatures are prevailing in a growing season, sexual traps demonstrate a massive flight of codling moth leading to an intensive chemical control. In Morocco, data concerning its life cycle are imprecise. Thus, its voltinism and the impact of temperatures on the progress of its generations were investigated during six growing seasons (2010–2015) in a Moroccan apple orchard. The degree days method was also investigated to verify the adaptability of codling moth populations to phenological models. Results revealed that codling moth flight consisted on three generations per year, whereas an additional fourth generation of moths is expected when the beginning of the life cycle (first generation) matches with high temperatures. The present study highlighted the importance of the first generation on codling moth control, as it represented around 50% of captures per year. The accumulation of an average of 360 degree days during April and May allowed an earlier and faster development of the first generation, which impacted the progress of the following generations, extended the presence of the insect, and consequently increased its voltinism. Moreover, temperatures during the period conducive to insect diapause (July to early August) are always high in Moroccan conditions and thus inhibit insect diapause. Finally, the estimated generations, based on degree days method, were in concordance with codling moth flight dynamics based on sexual traps captures, making possible the prediction of insect development pattern using a phenological model.

Galling species (GS) and leaf-chewing insects differ in resource use and sensitivity to microclimatic factors. We tested the effects of the harsh environmental, plant richness, and density on GS attack and the leaf damage inflicted by leaf-chewing insects along an abrupt transition between the savanna and tropical dry forest in Brazil. We found 134 GS on 406 trees belonging to 75 species in 30 sampled plots during the rainy season. Higher GS number was found in xeric habitats, according to the gradient: cerrado > transition > dry forest, whereas opposite pattern was found for the percentage of leaf area removed by insects. In general, plant richness and density significantly affected GS richness. On the other hand, herbivore responses to tree density (at intraspecific level) depended largely on host tree species evaluated. Our results provide evidence for the harsh environmental hypothesis on galling richness in xeric habitats, and plant species richness and density positively explained the increase in local GS richness. The high GS richness sampled demonstrates that more attention should be directed to the biodiversity and conservation of abrupt transition areas in cerrado, given their success and possible extensive radiation in there. In this perspective, the conservation of areas with higher plant species number and density may have primordial implications to preserve the diverse and specific GS richness associated to these close habitats.

Private yards comprise a significant component of urban lands, with managed lawns representing the dominant land cover. Lawns blanket > 163,000 km² of the United States, and 50% of urban and suburban areas. When not treated with herbicides, lawns have the capacity to support a diversity of spontaneous (e.g., not planted) flowers, with the potential to provide nectar and pollen resources for pollinators such as native bees. In order to determine the extent to which suburban lawns support these important species, we surveyed lawns in 17 suburban yards in Springfield, MA, between May and September 2013 and 2014. Householders participating in the study did not apply chemical pesticides or herbicides to lawns for the duration of the study. We collected 5,331 individual bees, representing 111 species, and 29% of bee species reported for the state. The majority of species were native to North America (94.6%), nested in soil (73%), and solitary (48.6%). Species richness was lower for oligolectic (specialists on a single plant; 9.9%) and parasitic species (12.6%). Abundance percentages for number of individuals were similar. We documented 63 plant species in the lawns, the majority of which were not intentionally planted. The most abundant lawn flowers were dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and clover (Trifolium sp.). Nearly 30% of the spontaneous plant species growing in the lawns were native to North America. Our study suggests that the spontaneous lawn flowers could be viewed as supplemental floral resources and support pollinators, thereby enhancing the value of urban green spaces.

Little is known about insect pest ontogeny, with respect to fecundity, on domesticated plants and their wild relatives, and the effect of fecundity on parasitoids. The aim was to determine fecundity in young (2 wk old) and mature (8 wk old) females of the pest Dalbulus maidis (DeLong) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) on maize, Zea mays ssp. mays, and its wild relative, teosinte. The effect of fecundity on parasitoid attraction was also evaluated. First, the fecundity of young D. maidis females and their attractiveness to parasitoids was evaluated in the native maize race “maíz ancho” and in the teosinte Zea perennis. Next, the fecundity of mature females and their attractiveness to parasitoids was evaluated in the native maize race “maíz ancho” at two juvenile stages, and in the teosintes Zea mays ssp. parviglumis and Z. perennis. Whereas young females laid more eggs on maize than on Z. perennis, mature females laid similar numbers of eggs on all plants studied. Anagrus incarnatus Haliday (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) was the most abundant egg parasitoid. Eggs from young versus mature D. maidis females attracted more parasitoids. Furthermore, more parasitoid adults emerged from eggs produced by young D. maidis females on maize than on Z. perennis, whereas no difference was seen in the number of parasitoid adults emerging from eggs produced by mature D. maidis females from any of the four plant treatments. These results indicate that fecundity changes with herbivore pest age and egg parasitoid attraction depends on herbivore density; in this case, attraction was higher for young D. maidis females.

Most predator and parasitoid functional response studies have been carried out by using experimental designs where insects are confined to an arena and subsequently exposed to different host densities, which are evaluated individually. In the case of a parasitoid that looks for profitable patches, this design forces it to use the single host density patch available, and therefore the possibility of selection by the parasitoid is not considered at all. A selective functional response, in which the host is distributed in discrete patches at different densities, could be a solution to avoid such a limitation. However, the disadvantage of this design is that it does not meet the independence assumption required to perform a parametric statistical analysis. Nevertheless, the use of nonparametric analyses such as GAM and GAMM models allows the performance of this kind of design, making the relationship between the response and the explanatory variable more flexible, looking for general behavioral patterns. The behavior of the fruit fly parasitoid Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead) in a patched condition was assessed in order to demonstrate that nonparametric analyses are useful tools when studying the selective functional response. Results showed that the functional response changed from a “sigmoid curve” to a “bell-shape curve” when the parasitoid had the chance to choose freely among different host densities. The female parasitoid distributed their ovarian load among the eight host densities. The present study suggests that the bell-shape curve displays a general behavior pattern of the parasitoid population.

Invertebrate herbivores prefer younger over older plant stages. Therefore, defensive traits against herbivores during early plant ontogeny are important. Defensive chemical and physical traits are well-studied in domesticated plants, but not in their wild relatives. Little is known about the function of trichomes, a physical defense against herbivore arthropods that damage cultivated plants and their wild ancestors. Maize is one of the most important crops in the world, but few studies have been conducted on the physical defenses during early ontogeny of maize and its wild relative teosinte. Therefore, the objective of this study was to characterize the density of trichomes (macrohairs) in maize and teosintes, and to evaluate the chewing damage by Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae on the 6-leaf stage of 1) perennial teosinte Zea perennis (Poaceae), 2) annual teosinte Zea mays ssp. parviglumis, 3) landrace maize, and 4) on the 2-leaf stage of the landrace maize. Significantly less damage occurred in both teosinte species, which showed pubescence (trichomes) on the upper leaf-blade, but not on the midrib leaf surface. The highest trichome density was found on Z. perennis, followed by Z. mays ssp. parviglumis at the 6-leaf stage. No trichomes were found on the landrace maize, at the 6-leaf stage or 2-leaf stage. Results suggest that trichomes play an important role in preventing damage by chewing larvae on the ancestors of maize. Genes that promote macrohair initiation in teosintes during early vegetative development could be incorporated into maize plants in the future.

A study of the life history and ecology of Camelobaetidius variabilis was conducted in Honey Creek, Oklahoma, from February 2003–April 2004. C. variabilis exhibited a multivoltine life cycle with five overlapping generations. Ninety percent of lab-reared eggs hatched at 130 degree days (DD) (23 ° C) while nymphs successfully emerged at 559 DD at 20.8 ± .38 ° C. Microhabitat preference of C. variabilis nymphs was statistically significant for algae during the spring. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling analysis showed 90% similarity between spring algae, winter leaf packs, fall open bedrocks, and summer divets based on average number of nymphs by developmental stage. Winter leaf packs exposed to shade and sunlight were sampled and total number of nymphs counted. Leaf packs exposed to direct sunlight contained higher numbers of nymphs compared to those in shaded areas. Further internal temperature analysis of leaf packs exposed to sunlight showed an increase in internal leaf pack temperatures compared to ambient water temperature during the winter. C. variabilis nymphs have a varied microhabitat use depending upon season. Since they are scrapers, algae and periphyton are important food resources throughout the year.

Yeast-like symbionts (YLSs) are transovarially transmitted between brown planthopper generations, but the transmission mechanism is poorly understood. In the present study, we found that YLSs do not enter the brown planthopper oocyte until it develops to late vitellogenesis. During oocyte vitellogenesis, the diversification and morphological changes of the follicular cells surrounding the oocyte are associated with the accumulation and polarization of vitellogenin (Vg) and lipids in the oocyte, indirectly affecting the entry of YLSs into the oocyte. Additionally, the posterior follicular cells, one of the diversified follicular cell populations, form the epithelial plug that is the only structure for YLSs to enter the oocyte. In addition, actin is rearranged within the follicular cells to build an actin bridge for YLSs to move from the epithelial plug to the oocyte, indicating that actin mediates the entry of YLSs into the brown planthopper oocyte during oocyte vitellogenesis. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the entry of YLSs into the brown planthopper oocyte is triggered by oocyte vitellogenesis.

Apolipoprotein D (ApoD) is an essential protein for insect internal circulation because of its role in lipid transportation. In this study, we cloned and characterized ApoD and analyzed its expression characteristics in Bombyx mori (L.) (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae). The ApoD cDNA fragment, which has an open reading frame of 522 bp with a lipocalin domain (PF08212), encodes 174 amino acids. The deduced ApoD protein sequence has 28.2% identity to its ortholog in Mus musculus and 27.8% identity to its ortholog GLaz in Drosophila melanogaster. Several putative cis-acting elements related to development were also examined. Using quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), the ApoD gene expression was detected in the head and silk glands. Western blotting showed that ApoD protein was present in the head, hemolymph, fat body, gonad, middle silk gland, and posterior silk gland. ApoD expression was relatively higher in the hemolymph during days 1–3 of fifth-instar larvae and days 6–8 of the pupal stage. The highest mRNA levels were detected in the pupae on day 9 by using quantitative RT-PCR. After an oxidative stress treatment and a bacterial challenge, expression levels of the ApoD gene from B. mori were up-regulated at different time points compared with the control group. Simultaneously, immunohistochemical localization showed that ApoD is widely detected in the brain, eye, ovary, and testis on day 3 of the fifth-instar larval stage. The results indicated that ApoD is involved in insect development and reproduction, and plays an important role in the response to bacterial challenge and other stress signals.

Effects of two purified agglutinins from Rhizoctonia solani Kuhen (Rhizoctonia solani agglutinin) were determined on larval intermediary metabolism of Pieris brassicae L. Two concentrations of Rhizoctonia solani agglutinin (RSA; 1 and 2 mg ml^–1) significantly decreased activities of both alanine and aspartate aminotransferases, but no significant activity was observed on c-glutamyl transferase. However, activity of aldolase decreased in the treated larvae by both concentrations of RSAs, but lactate dehydrogenase showed the highest activity when the larvae fed on 2 mg ml^–1 of RSAs. Activities of acid- and alkaline phosphatases significantly decreased followed by feeding on the diets containing RSAs. Similar results were observed in the amounts of high-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein. The amounts of protein and triacylglycerol significantly decreased in the treated larvae, while glycogen significantly increased in the larvae fed on RSAs-containing diets. Gene expression analyses of glycerol-3-phosphate in the control and treated larvae revealed significant expression in the larvae fed on RSAI in comparison with other treatments. These results demonstrated intervening effects of RSAs on intermediary metabolism of P. brassicae larvae, further confirming their entomotoxic effects.

Three termite species currently placed into Nasutitermes Dudley, 1890 (Isoptera: Termitidae), occurring in Taiwan, N. kinoshitai (Hozawa, 1915), N. parvonasutus (Nawa, 1911), and N. takasagoensis (Nawa, 1911), are redescribed and keyed. The soldier and worker castes of N. kinoshitai are described for the first time. Neotypes are designated for N. parvonasutus and N. takasagoensis. Significant difference in their morphology and gene sequences of mitochondrial 16S rRNA and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) indicate that N. kinoshitai and N. parvonasutus do not belong to Nasutitermes; however, as the genus and several morphologically similar and systematically related genera are in need of revision, currently it is not possible to propose a revised generic placement. Based on 438 colony samples, the distribution pattern, dispersal flight season, polymorphism of soldier and worker castes, and termitophiles of the three species are discussed.

The previously monotypic genus Araeolepia is reviewed. As defined herein the genus includes four species: three from USA, A. subfasciella Walsingham, A. leuschneri n. sp., and A. ustulana n. sp.; and one from USA and Mexico, A. triangula n. sp. The systematic position of Araeolepia is revised based on comparisons of morphological characters with other lepidopterans. The thoracic and abdominal articulation and the presence of the cubital pecten on the hindwings indicate that Araeolepia are associated with the apoditrysian superfamily Carposinoidea rather than Plutellidae in Yponomeutoidea as previously proposed. Similarities of the male and female genitalia among Araeolepia, Ellabella, and Lotisma suggest that they may belong to the same family, Copromorphidae. Photographs of adult habitus and genitalia, when available, are provided for all described species of Araeolepia.

Here we report, for the first time, the occurrence of a Crematogaster species with 10-segmented antennae in the Indochina region. Specifically, the new species, Crematogaster indosinensissp. nov., exhibits size polymorphism in the worker caste and was collected in Cambodia. However, it is not currently known whether C. indosinensis has an association with ant-plants. The interspecific cytochrome c oxidase subunit I divergence for C. indosinensis versus C. borneensis was 20%, suggesting that the taxa diverged relatively long ago. Molecular phylogenetic analysis using nuclear genes revealed that C. indosinensis is sister to the remainders of the C. borneensis-group.

The asexual generation of Latuspina Monzen is described for the first time. Although this genus was established based only on sexual generation upon which females possess a trifurcate hypopygial spine, the asexual generation females of Latuspina, including the type species L. stirps, possess a needle-shaped hypopygial spine, similar to that of many Cynipini, oak gall wasps. Based on the trifurcate hypopygial spine in sexual generation females, Neuroterus atamiensis Ashmead, N. hellwegi Dettmer, and N. nawai Ashmead are transferred to Latuspina in this paper: L. atamiensiscomb. nov., L. hellwegicomb. nov., and L. nawaicomb. nov. In addition, L. kofuensis Ide et Abe sp. nov. and L. abemakiphila Ide et Abe sp. nov. are described as new species from Japan. Latuspina includes nine species in total, but the asexual generation galls and adults of the following four species are unknown: L. abemakiphila, the Taiwanese species L. manmiaoyangae Melika et Tang, and two mainland Chinese species L. acutissimae Wang, Pujade-Villar et Guo and L. shaanxinensis Wang, Pujade-Villar et Guo. Although the host plant of L. shaanxinensis was reported as genus “Quercus” without specific name, the other species of Latuspina induce galls on oaks of the section Cerris of the genus Quercus, implying that they are specialized to oaks of this section.