A new species of stonefly, Alloperla lenati, is described from Hoke/Scotland Co., North Carolina. It is a member of the leonarda species group but can be distinguished from included species by the distinctively shaped epiproct. Additionally, two new North Carolina state records are reported for the perlodines Hydroperla phormidia (Columbus/Robeson Co.) and Isogenoides varians (Davie/Davidson Co.).

The genus Pseudosinella is surveyed. The 11 species recorded from East Asia are reviewed. Seven of these are reported from China by the present authors (P. bellingeri, caoi, grinnellia, hui, mutabilis, tumula, and sexoculata). Rusek first described P. tridentifera from China; Deharveng described P. chiangdaoensis from North Thailand; P. octopunctata Börner is a widespread species; and P. petterseni Börner is a Holarctic species. A key to the Pseudosinella species of East Asia is given.

The species of the Melaloncha cingulata-group are revised. The group consists of two described species, M. cingulata Borgmeier and M. lamellata Borgmeier, plus the following nine new to science: M. crassa, M. elviae, M. hirticula, M. nudibasalis, M. pertica, M. prosopica, M. succincta, M. thompsonae, and M. variabilis. Two monophyletic species groups are proposed: the M. lamellata-subgroup (M. lamellata, M. pertica, and M. thompsonae) and the M. cingulata-subgroup (all other species). Probable stingless bee hosts are identified for three species.

Acroneuria kirchneri sp. nov. is described from male, female, nymphal, and egg specimens collected in Kentucky, Virginia, and West Virginia. The new species is compared with Acroneuria flinti Stark & Gaufin and Acroneuria kosztarabi Kondratieff & Kirchner, two species that also display a completely punctate egg chorion.

During the search for natural enemies of Old World climbing fern, Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br. (Schizaeaceae), in Australia and southeastern Asia, Cataclysta camptozonale (Hampson) was found to be highly specific to this aggressive vine and was tested as a biological control agent. This musotimine moth species has long been misplaced in a European acentropine genus; therefore, we propose Austromusotima, new genus, to accommodate Austromusotima camptozonale, new combination, as the type species. The syntype series of Oligostima camptozonale is a mixture of specimens of the former species (sensu stricto) and its sibling, Austromusotima metastictalis (Hampson), new combination. A lectotype is designated for A. camptozonale to stabilize the use of the name. The immature stages of A. camptozonale are described and compared with other known musotimine immatures. The immatures of Eugauria albidenta (Hampson) and Cataclysta angulata Moore are illustrated for the first time. Austromusotima is most closely related to Cataclysta seriopunctalis Hampson based on adult morphological characters, but immatures of C. seriopunctalis are unknown, and therefore, this species is not included in Austromusotima. The important, yet incongruent, results between immature and adult characters are discussed in the context of phylogenetic relationships of Austromusotima to other taxa.

Phylogenetic relationships among basal hexapod lineages were investigated using molecular sequence data derived from three nuclear genes: elongation factor-1α, RNA polymerase II, and elongation factor-2. Nucleotide and amino acids from 12 hexapods and 22 crustacean outgroups were analyzed using maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood methods. The results support most traditional morphology-based relationships, including monophyly of Hexapoda, Diplura, Insecta, and Pterygota. However, placement of Diplura was unstable. Some analyses placed them as the sister group to Ellipura (Collembola Protura) to form Entognatha. In others, Diplura was recovered as the sister group to Insecta, contrary to the Entognatha hypothesis. The analysis also recovered a monophyletic Thysanura sensu lato (Archaeognatha Zygentoma) as the sister group to Pterygota, a conclusion that is consistent with precladistic notions of hexapod systematics but conflicts with current understanding of morphological evolution. The data were also used to reconstruct divergence times from a Bayesian analysis of sequence changes that also incorporated constraints at several nodes based on our understanding of the fossil record. At one node that was not directly constrained by the fossil record (dictyopteran/orthopteroid divergence), our estimate was inconsistent with fossil evidence, suggesting our results (like those using other dating methods) should be interpreted with caution.

The North American Alutacea Group of the genus Schistocerca is revised based on phylogenetic analysis and morphological comparison. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that Schistocerca alutacea sensu Dirsh is paraphyletic because S. alutacea albolineata sensu Dirsh is sister to S. obscura. Here, I recognize the monophyletic Alutacea Group consisting of six species: S. alutacea, S. rubiginosa, S. lineata, S. shoshone, S. albolineata, and S. obscura. Previous taxonomic confusion on these species is discussed, and their taxonomic ranks are accordingly raised from subspecies to species level. Neotypes of S. alutacea and S. rubiginosa are designated, and S. insignis is synonymized under S. albolineata syn. nov. Also, I argue for the validity of the name S. lineata and discuss the previous misapplication of nomenclature. Discussion of color variation and an identification key for all North American Schistocerca species are presented.

Nine new species of Thrypticus (Diptera, Dolichopodidae) are described from South America: T. truncatus, T. sagittatus, T. yanayacu, T. circularis, T. chanophallus, T. romus, T. azuricola, T. formosensis, and T. taragui. All nine species were reared from the petioles and stems of aquatic and semiaquatic Pontederiaceae, five of them from water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes. These species appear to comprise the monophyletic truncatus Group characterized by a short and rather weakly sclerotised oviscapt, probably adapted to egg-laying in the soft petioles of Pontederiaceae. By contrast, most other Thrypticus species have a longer and more strongly sclerotised oviscapt for oviposition in hard-stemmed Poaceae, Cyperaceae, and Juncaceae. T. truncatus and T. sagittatus have potential as biological control agents for Eichhornia crassipes, which is a serious invasive weed in the Old World tropics. Notes are presented on the life history of these two species, based on field and rearing chamber observations.

We studied the structure of an ant community along a 900-m transect of grassland in Argentina. Two ant species, Solenopsis richteri Forel and Camponotus punctulatus Mayr, monopolized space and food. These two species were distributed as a mosaic with most of the transect always controlled by either one or both. Within monospecific areas, each species reached mound densities comparable to those seen where each is an invasive species. Sampling with tuna and sugar water revealed that these two species together monopolized 95% of all baits. Where they co-occurred, S. richteri recruited more effectively and controlled more baits than C. punctulatus. In each area where S. richteri or C. punctulatus was most abundant, each dominant species arrived first at baits but did not differ from the other species in their persistence at these baits. Both species seemed to prefer to forage in the mornings in areas where each was most abundant; however, only C. punctulatus retained this pattern in the areas at which both species had similar densities. The rare occurrence of Pseudacteon parasitoids, and the susceptibility to flooding in the area, may explain the abundance of S. richteri and C. punctulatus, respectively, in this grassland.

Aspects of adult host plant preference and preimaginal development of the cabbage seedpod weevil, Ceutorhynchus obstrictus (Marsham), were investigated in spring canola, Brassica napus L., in the Mixed Grassland Ecoregion of western Canada. In spring, overwintered adults initially occurred in high densities on volunteer canola and other brassicaceous weeds. In a mixed stand of Sinapis arvensis L., Thlaspi arvense L., and Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb, weevil numbers were significantly higher on S. arvensis than the other host plant species. Regardless of host plant species, adults were found more abundantly on inflorescences than on leaves or stems. Little adult migration to spring canola occurred when crops were in the seedling and rosette stages, but migration increased significantly to a maximum in the bud and flowering stages. Most oviposition occurred when plants were still flowering but pods on lower racemes were elongating. First instars were most abundant when seeds in lower pods were beginning to enlarge. The greatest abundance of second instars occurred when seeds within the lower siliques were fully enlarged. Third instars were most abundant when seeds in lower siliques were green. Development from egg to adult required 31–58 d in spring canola. Larvae occurred more abundantly on lower regions of racemes than on pods higher up. Although C. obstrictus is primarily a pest of autumn-seeded “winter” crops of B. napus in Europe and the northwestern United States, our study demonstrated that its preimaginal development occurred rapidly and successfully within the short-season “spring” crops of B. napus grown in western North America.

One hundred and three laboratory colonies of the eastern subterranean termite. Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar). ranging from 4 mo to 9 yr of age, were destructively sampled, and the numbers of eggs and other life stages were counted. Polygyny was maintained in 9.7% (n = 31) of the groups censused at four months, whereas monogyny was the only condition found thereafter. Polyandry was recorded in 17% of colonies sampled over a 2-yr period. Colonies set up with multiple males/females achieved similar rates of progeny (numbers, caste proportions, and biomass) compared with colonies initiated by a single royal pair. The soldier caste was present at the 4-mo census, whereas nymphs and neotenics first occurred in 2-yr-old groups. Primary queens reached a mean body mass of 7.06 mg (SD 2.4) after 2 yr and did not gain considerable weight between 2 and 4 yr. Two 6-yr-old queens weighed 17 and 18 mg, respectively, and produced the highest number of eggs per day. A simple computer model of colony growth, using both egg-laying rates obtained from our census and hypothetical egg-laying rates, revealed that the expected number of larvae matched the numbers censused in colonies up to 2 yr of age, although worker numbers were consistently overestimated. The data indicate that a monogyne colony of R. flavipes could not attain the population size occasionally described in field studies. Extrapolating laboratory data and potential reproductive mechanisms that can account for field data are discussed.

The brown citrus aphid, Toxoptera citricida (Kirkaldy), is an exotic pest of citrus in the United States that was introduced into Florida in 1995. The native parasitoid Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Cresson) has demonstrated acceptance of the brown citrus aphid as a host. This experiment evaluated the effect of citrus host plants on brown citrus aphid parasitism by L. testaceipes, and the effect of temperature on development of the parasitoid. The levels of parasitism achieved by L. testaceipes were similar among brown citrus aphid populations on five citrus cultivars used as host plants for the aphids (range 34–36%). The percentage of adult parasitoid emergence was highest on ‘Duncan grapefruit’ (82%) and significantly lower on ‘Mexican lime’ (63%) than on any of the other citrus cultivars. The proportion of adults that were female was significantly higher on ‘Duncan grapefruit’ (81%) than on any of the other cultivars. The results demonstrate that the effects of multiple trophic levels can influence parasitoid performance in a cascading manner. The developmental periods for both male and female L. testaceipes on the brown citrus aphid declined from 21 to 9 d with ascending temperatures in the range 18–27°C. The developmental threshold was 10.4°C and the degree-day (DD) requirement for development was 158.7 DD, indicating that the temperature conditions experienced in Florida are conducive to rapid development of L. testaceipes on the brown citrus aphid.

Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) is an important insect pest on stored maize, Zea mays L., and cassava, Manihot esculenta Crantz, in Africa, but weekly pheromone-baited trap catches in West and East Africa exceeding 1000 individuals suggest that this insect is also well established in nonagricultural areas. The magnitude of pheromone-baited trap catches on the African continent emphasizes the importance of looking into the nonagricultural hosts of P. truncatus, because “wild” P. truncatus populations may be a threat to nearby food storage systems. In this study, we used a combination of 1) laboratory no-choice rearing tests on forest branches, roots, and seeds; 2) a behavioral experiment; 3) a review of published studies on the spatial ecology and host range of P. truncatus; and 4) a comparison of estimated P. truncatus production from potential forest hosts with the magnitude of pheromone trap catches, to discuss the possible role of different hosts in the P. truncatus ecology in West Africa. In no-choice tests, we evaluated the ability of P. truncatus to attack and reproduce on 1) fresh branches from 26 plant species, 2) dry branches from 13 species, 3) fresh roots from 18 species, 4) dry roots from two species, and 5) seeds from four species. Heavy attacks occurred on fresh branches from 11 tree species and fresh roots from four tree species. High reproductive rate was found on branches from four species and on roots from two species, and P. truncatus reproduction was also observed on teak, Tectona grandis Linn. F., seeds. We provided rough estimates of P. truncatus populations from different forest hosts and compared them with the spatial distribution pattern and the magnitude of pheromone-baited trap catches in a West African forest. The results from this study underscored the importance of further research into the possible role of girdled branches of Lannea nigritana (Sc. Elliot) Keay (Anacardiaceae), forest seeds, and roots in the P. truncatus ecology in West Africa.

Fungi associated with the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari), are determined and galleries in coffee fruit, Coffea arabica L., are described. In total, 13 fungus species were found to be associated with the coffee berry borer and its galleries. These fungi were divided into four functional groups: 1) saprobic fungi that the borer uses as food: Fusarium heterosporum Nees ex Fries, Cladosporium sp., Cladosporium oxysporum Berkeley & Curtis, and Penicillium echinulatum Fassatiová; 2) saprobic fungi that degrade borer feces: Aspergillus flavus Link, Aspergillus niger Tieghem, Mucor luteus Linnemann, Penicillium sp. 1, Humicola grisea Traaen, and Gliocladium penicilloides Corda; 3) fungi that are coffee parasites: Fusarium oxysporum Schlechetend and Fusarium solani (Martius) Saccardo; and 4) the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Crivelli) Vuillemin. The same fungi were found on and inside the insect as well as in galleries and were components of the insect’s diet. Apparent interference of B. bassiana by F. solani was observed.

Adult boxelder bugs [Leptocoris trivittatus (Say)] (Heteroptera: Rhopalidae) were observed feeding on dead conspecifics while overwintering. Boxelder bug adults were collected in the fall of 2000 and 2001 to test the hypothesis that conspecific necrophagy provides a benefit through increased survivorship. Adult bugs were kept individually with no water or food, water only, dead boxelder bugs only, water and dead boxelder bugs, and water and boxelder (Acer negundo L.) seeds. Boxelder bugs kept without water, either with or without other resources, died at a significantly higher rate than bugs kept with water. Bugs provided with water and dead boxelder bugs lived significantly longer than bugs provided only with water and were seen feeding on the dead bugs for up to 2.5 h continuously. The presence of boxelder seeds did not increase survivorship beyond the water-only treatment. It was concluded that water was the most limiting factor determining boxelder bug survivorship during winter, but dead boxelder bugs provided additional resources to further increase survivorship. Conspecific necrophagy in overwintering adult boxelder bugs provides a significant survivorship advantage that could promote this trait in boxelder bug populations.

The spatial and temporal patterns of oviposition-resource use of various Anastrepha spp. fruit flies within the canopies of individual fruit trees were determined over periods of 4–6 yr in the state of Veracruz, Mexico. The flies examined were Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart), Anastrepha striata Schiner, Anastrepha fracterculus (Wiedemann), and Anastrepha alveata Stone, and their respective hosts were Spondias mombin L. (Anacardiaceae), Psidium guajava L., Psidium sartorianum (Berg.) Ndzu (Myrtacaea), and Ximenia americana L. (Olacaceae). The canopies were divided into six sectors: three strata (vertical planes of low, middle, and high canopy) and an exterior and interior component of the various heights. All ripe fruits produced by each tree species were individually harvested, weighed, and maintained until all larvae had exited and pupated. Because of the commonly positive correlation between fruit size and infestation, fly distributions were described using a novel technique, two-level hierarchal regression analysis, as deviations from the expected numbers of insects in a sector given the distributions of fruit weights within the canopy. Overall, there was a tendency for A. alveata to be more abundant in the lower portions of the tree, for A. striata to be more abundant in the upper, for A. obliqua to be less abundant in the upper, and for A. fraterculus to be uniformly distributed. The yearly densities of A. striata and A. fraterculus within the P. guajava tree were negatively correlated, and this seems to be due to annual changes in environment rather than to exploitive competition for oviposition resources. Along an altitudinal gradient (0–1,800 m), A. striata was more abundant than A. fraterculus at sea level and relatively less abundant at altitudes of 1000 m and higher. We suggest that habitat characteristics (oviposition-resource availability and quality, and microclimatic variables), intraspecific competition, and the behaviors of natural enemies and frugivores are potentially important interactive factors that influence the distribution of resource use to a different extent in each of the tephritid species.

Currently, the southern United States produces more timber than any other region in the world. Entire timber stands are removed through a harvesting method called clear-cutting. This common forestry practice may lead to the replacement of native ant communities with invasive, nonindigenous species. In four deciduous forest sites in South Carolina, we monitored the change in ant species richness, diversity, and abundance immediately after forest clearing for a period of 15 mo to 2 yr and determined the incidence of colonization of the red imported fire ant Solenopsis invicta into these four newly disturbed sites. Each site consisted of an uncut, forested plot and a logged, pine-planted plot. Fire ants were collected in clear-cuts as early as 3 mo postcutting, and by the end of the experiment, they were found in all four treatment sites. Our study is the first to document, through a controlled experiment, that clear-cutting alters ant species assemblages by increasing S. invicta and Pheidole spp. populations and significantly reducing native ant numbers. Long-term studies are needed to assess how replacing native deciduous forests with pine monocultures affects ant assemblages.

To test prior results with a more sensitive technique and larger sample sizes, we assessed genetic diversity among far-flung monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus (L.) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), populations from North and South America by using mitochondrial DNA sequences. Our new data corroborate the previously documented close genetic similarity among individuals and reveal no phylogenetic structure among populations throughout the species’ New World range in North and South America. Despite this intraspecific homogeneity, the monarch is clearly distinct from its sister taxon Danaus erippus (Cramer). The evidence suggests that the monarch has colonized its current distribution in relatively recent evolutionary time. Implications for conservation and regulatory policy over interregional transfer are discussed.

A liquid larval diet and its rearing system for Bactrocera cucurbitae Coquillett fruit fly production were developed. The diet was composed of brewer’s yeast, sugar, antifungal agents (sodium benzoate and nipagen), citric acid, and distilled water. Sponge cloth placed in rearing trays was used as a support substrate for larvae, alleviating the need for the traditional (mill feed) bulking agent. Larval rearing of B. cucurbitae on this diet resulted in ≈20% less pupal production and ≈10% lighter pupal weight than from the control diet, whereas pupal density, adult emergence, adult fliers, and egg hatch showed no significant discrepancies. Pupal recovery increased with yeast concentrations up to 14.2%. Benefits derived from a liquid diet include reduction in postrearing waste, alleviation of (pesticide-free) bulking agent, and reduction in diet ingredient storage and labor. These benefits must be weighed against any reductions in production and size when large-scale mass rearing of fruit flies for use in sterile insect release programs are evaluated.

Grouped or individual amino acids from two diets were deleted to evaluate the effects of amino acids on larvae and adults of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann). Larvae died when fed with diets free of 10 exogenous essential amino acids (arginine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, histidine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine) or containing nine exogenous amino acids with removal of any one of the 10 essential amino acids. However, when larvae were reared on diets lacking all eight of the exogenous nonessential amino acids together (alanine, aspartic acid, cystine, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine), or either glycine or serine, they survived but exhibited significantly delayed larval development. When adults fed on a diet lacking all 10 essential amino acids or all eight nonessential amino acids, no effect on adult survivorship, sexual maturity, or egg hatch was observed, but the fecundity was significantly reduced. Removal of arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, tryptophan, or valine from adult diets decreased fecundity significantly.

The nutritional interaction between niacin (nicotinic acid) and a group of nine other B vitamins in the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), larval diet was evaluated. Four doses of niacin (0, 0.2, 2.0, and 20 ppm) and four doses of a mixture of nine other B vitamins (0, 7.07, 70.7, and 707 ppm) in the diet were cross-tested. The other B vitamins consisted of thiamin, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, folic acid, biotin, inositol, choline chloride, and p-amino benzoic acid. Diets with high doses (≥70.7 ppm) of the other B vitamins and low doses (≤0.2 ppm) of niacin resulted in no pupal recovery. However, a delayed larval duration and reduced pupal recovery resulted when no niacin and 7.07 ppm or lower of the other B vitamins were compared with those from a complete diet that contained 20 ppm niacin and 707 ppm of the other B vitamins. With omission of the other B vitamins, larval duration was delayed but was not dose dependent on niacin. Pupal recovery was not affected if niacin levels were maintained at or >0.2 ppm and the other B vitamins were absent. With 20 ppm of niacin in the diet, the larval duration and pupal recovery were dependent on the dose of the other B vitamins. Larval durations were shortened with elevated doses of the other B vitamins, whereas pupal recoveries increased with elevated dose of the other B vitamins. Therefore, the other vitamins reduced the larval duration when niacin was maintained at ≥2 ppm. When the niacin levels decreased to ≤0.2 ppm, doses of the other vitamins has to be reduced <7.07 ppm to maintain normal larval development.

Pleuropodia of the invaginated type were observed on the first abdominal segment in 8-d-old embryos of Thermobia domestica (Packard). The pleuropodium is formed by a cytoplasmatic internal part and a mushroom-like cavity. The latter is filled with fluid and is composed of a stem protruding through the epidermis and a vesicle-like copula. The arrangement of membrane folds, mitochondria, and lipid drops was observed on electron micrographs (TEM) of pleuropodium cells. The position and structure of these organelles indicates that the cells of this organ perform transport and secretory functions.

Previous molecular phylogenetic studies have focused on either the relationship between isopteran families or among species within a given genus, but there are presently few studies focusing on individual families and no known molecular studies for Rhinotermitidae. We examined 38 rhinotermitid species representing 10 genera, relative to representatives of four other isopteran families. Sequencing of a 667-base pair region of the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase II gene revealed 343 polymorphic sites within the family. Tajima-Nei genetic distances ranged from 11 to 23% among rhinotermitid genera. Maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood analysis of DNA sequences support existing hypotheses that Mastotermitidae is the basal lineage among extant termites, and the family Rhinotermitidae is polyphyletic given the current familial status of Serritermitidae. DNA sequence data suggest that Serritermitidae should be relegated to the subfamily Serritermitinae, as proposed by Emerson in 1965.

A phylogenetic analysis of Heterotermes from 63 locations in the West Indies and associated mainland is presented based on the DNA sequence of a portion of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene. Maximum parsimony analysis of the aligned Heterotermes species and the outgroup taxa resulted in a consensus tree with five distinct West Indian groups. Morphological characters and geographical distribution supported the resulting clades, which were given the following taxonomic assignments: Heterotermes cardini (Bahamas and Cuba); Heterotermes sp. (Bonaire, FL; Grand Cayman; Grand Turk; Jamaica; and St. Barthelemy), Heterotermes convexinotatus (Antigua, Barbados, Curacao, Dominican Republic, Martinique, Puerto Rico, St. Kitts, St. Maarten, Venezuela, and Virgin Island), and Heterotermes tenuis (Lesser Antilles except Barbados and Martinique, Ecuador, and Suriname). The Florida Heterotermes sp. is a known nonendemic population, whereas those on Barbados, Grand Cayman, Grand Turk, Martinique, St. Barthelemy, and elsewhere may harbor or consist solely of nonendemic populations.

Eight complete cDNAs encoding for ferritins from the hard tick species Amblyomma americanum (L.), Amblyomma maculatum Koch, Boophilus microplus (Canestrini), Dermacentor albipictus (Packard), Dermacentor variabilis (Say), Hemaphysalis longicornis Neumann, Ixodes scapularis Say, and Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille) were obtained using the techniques of rapid amplification of cDNA ends. The deduced amino acid sequences from these tick ferritin genes share high identities (84–98%) with those of two published tick ferritins. The sequences and positions of the iron-responsive element in the 5′-untranslated region of the cDNAs are highly conserved in ticks. Similar to other known animal ferritins, a ferroxidase center, consisting of seven conserved amino acid residues, was identified in the deduced tick ferritins. Sequence comparison indicates that these tick ferritin genes belong to the type of invertebrate cytosolic heavy chain homologue. Two separate phylogenetic analyses of ferritin amino acid sequences, one with 52 arthropod ferritin sequences and another one using 10 tick ferritins, suggested that ferritin is a suitable nuclear protein-encoding gene for tick phylogenetic reconstruction.

DNA polymorphisms were detected in Homalodisca coagulata (Say) (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) with the following DNA fingerprinting methods: inter-simple sequence repeat-polymerase chain reaction (ISSR-PCR) and primer pair-ISSR-PCR (pp-ISSR-PCR), randomly amplified microsatellite polymophisms (RAMP), selective amplification of microsatellite polymorphic loci (SAMPL), and primer pair-random amplification of polymorphic DNA-polymerase chain reaction (pp-RAPD-PCR). But first, a small-scale DNA fingerprinting screening procedure was initiated with these methods with a few individual insects to estimate the most sensitive and efficient method(s). In total, 205 polymorphic markers were generated with the four methods. The efficiency ratio estimated the following order for each method: 1) pp-ISSR-PCR and ISSR-PCR, 2) RAMP, 3) pp-RAPD-PCR, and 4) SAMPL. The screening efficiency ratio estimated that pp-ISSR-PCR and ISSR-PCR were the most efficient methods. DNA polymorphisms were detected in a natural population of 10–30 insects. The number of polymorphic loci ranged from five (pp-RAPD-PCR reaction 6) to 32 (ISSR-PCR primer 13), and the percentage of polymorphic loci was 100% for most primers tested. DNA fingerprinting methods tested were able to detect geographic variation in populations of H. coagulata from Bakersfield and Riverside, CA, and Weslaco, TX. Dendrograms based on Nei’s genetic distance showed that H. coagulata from Bakersfield and Riverside formed a cluster separate from Weslaco in three DNA fingerprinting reactions tested incorporating simple sequence repeats. DNA fingerprinting methods tested were also able to distinguish between three Homalodisca sharpshooters: H. coagulata, Homalodisca insolita (Walker), and Homalodisca liturata (Ball). The present results confirmed the utility of the DNA fingerprinting screening procedure and demonstrated, for the first time, genetic variation in natural populations of glassy-winged sharpshooters by PCR-based DNA fingerprinting methods.

Parasitoids have developed a variety of searching strategies to maximize their searching efficiency. To increase the efficiency, leafminer parasitoids first search for host mines, which are linear and visually conspicuous, and then search for host larvae situated at the end of the mines by tracking the mines. We hypothesized that the leafminer parasitoids have the ability of directional orientation toward larvae as opposed to orienting randomly and tested this hypothesis by using the leafminer Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Diptera; Agromyzidae) and its parasitoid Hemiptarsenus varicornis (Girault) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). Direct observations of parasitoid behavior revealed that female parasitoids mostly selected the correct direction immediately after mine encounter. However, they did not select correctly when the host had been parasitized, or when the point of the mine encounter was far from the host larva, suggesting the possibility of sound-based search. Curiously, the success of encounter rates was not influenced by the directions that the female had selected. This was because the female turned to the correct direction during her search even after selecting the wrong direction. Thus, female H. varicornis can recognize which end of the mine the target larva lays upon mine encounter or during the foraging bout. The importance of the ability of recognizing the correct direction by the parasitoid and the possible mechanism involved in this ability is discussed.

Females of Muscidifurax zaraptor Kogan & Legner, a solitary pupal parasitoid of house flies, Musca domestica L., discriminated between hosts previously parasitized by themselves and by conspecifics. When hosts were in short supply, females avoided self-superparasitism and laid eggs in hosts that had been previously parasitized by conspecifics. When females were given a choice to oviposit in unparasitized pupae and hosts previously parasitized by themselves and conspecifics, females avoided superparasitism. Superparasitism seems to be avoided by the use of short-term memory of the position of the pupae and the use of internal host cues. Females did not respond to external cues. The adaptive significance of superparasitism in M. zaraptor is discussed.

The mating behavior and developmental reproductive biology of the soybean stem borer Dectes texanus texanus LeConte were studied. Adults live for up to a month, but reach sexual maturity and are able to mate at 5 d of age. At hour-long observation times between 0900 and 1700 hours, no peak time of mating was observed. Females did, however, stridulate more often between 0900 and 1300 hours. Males approach females and tap the surface of the female’s elytra and thorax with their antennae. Subsequently, the male mounts the female, strokes her elytra with his palpi, bends his abdomen, and copulates. Male responses to solvent washes of females suggest the use of a contact sex pheromone. Mature eggs are first observed in virgin female ovarioles at 14 d of age, whereas mated females (8 d old) are able to oviposit just 4–8 d after mating.

The events leading to oviposition by Tiphia pygidialis Allen and Tiphia vernalis Rohwer on their host Cyclocephala spp. and Popillia japonica Newman grubs, respectively, were compared and quantified using videotaped recordings. Mean (±SE) duration of the oviposition process was 49.3 ± 2.9 min for T. pygidialis and 31.5 ± 2.2 min for T. vernalis. Behaviors included stinging, moving soil from around grubs, host kneading, host examination, host feeding, and scraping of the grub’s cuticle. Sequence of behavioral events was translated into a first-order (Markovian) contingency table to construct flow charts of the oviposition process for both species. T. pygidialis spent more time kneading and scraping the cuticle of grubs than did T. vernalis, whereas T. vernalis performed more stinging and soil-moving events. These behaviors most likely serve to move the grubs into a suitable position for oviposition. Scraping of the host’s cuticle where an egg was to be laid took more time than any other behavior. Compared with nonparasitized grubs, cuticle from parasitized grubs contained numerous grooves filled with cement used to anchor the parasitoid egg. Scanning electron microscopy revealed peg-like structures, similar in size to the grooves made in the cuticle of parasitized grubs, on the ovipositor sheath of female wasps. These structures are thought to be used in making the grooves in the cuticle, whose postulated function is to increase the surface area of the host cuticle to facilitate egg attachment. This is the first study to implicate such use of the ovipositor sheath by a parasitoid.