Perry, D. J., Fernando, U. and Lee, S-J. 2014. Simple sequence repeat-based identification of Canadian malting barley varieties. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 485-496. Practical and reliable means to identify barley varieties are required to provide assurances in segregated grain handling and for quality control in the malting and brewing industry. A set of 10 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers was selected to differentiate among malting barley varieties grown in Canada. Modification of some PCR primers permitted assembly into two five-marker multiplexes that may be examined simultaneously using an electrophoresis-based DNA analyzer. These markers were surveyed in multiple individual kernels of each of 48 barley varieties grown in Canada, including 31 malting varieties and 17 popular feed varieties. Variation within varieties was common and three general categories of intra-variety polymorphism were recognized: (1) primary biotypes, which were characterized by a fairly even distribution of two alleles at one or more marker loci and complete mixture of allele combinations among the polymorphic loci; (2) uncommon, distinctly different variants; and (3) putative recent SSR mutations. Differentiation among varieties was complete with the exception of one pair of related six-row feed varieties (AC Rosser and AC Ranger) that was indistinguishable and one group of three very closely related two-row malting varieties (CDC Kendall, CDC PolarStar and Norman) that, on an individual-kernel basis, were only partially distinguishable using these markers. Simple, rapid individual-kernel DNA preparation methods were also developed for use in conjunction with the multiplexed markers to provide a convenient, effective and relatively inexpensive tool that may be used for barley variety identification, purity analysis or quantification of variety mixtures.

Demeke, T. and Perry, D. J. 2014. Low level presence of unapproved biotech materials: Current status and capability of DNA-based detection methods. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 497-507. In agricultural biotechnology, low level presence (LLP) of recombinant DNA plant material is defined as the unintended presence of trace levels of a specific genetically engineered (GE) or biotechnology-derived material which in most instances has been authorized for use as food or feed in at least one country. Asynchronous authorizations of GE products have prompted testing for the GE content in an assortment of agricultural products for the purpose of facilitating international grain trade. Low level presence of some unauthorized GE materials identified in non-GE grains, oilseeds and food stuffs has negatively impacted grain trade. Other factors contributing to a negative impact on grain trade due to LLP of GE material include zero tolerance policies and slow regulatory approval processes for some countries. This element alone heightens the need for accurate, reliable and cost-effective detection methods. As the number of biotech events increases, the challenge of handling LLP of unapproved GE materials poses an even greater challenge. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is widely used for detection and quantification of GE events. Accuracy of PCR-based testing of GE events is affected by variation in sampling, sample preparation and various confounders associated with testing methods. Challenges when using PCR detection and quantification methods for the detection of LLP of GE events are the focus of this review as well as background information and recent examples of occurrence and suggestions to mitigate LLP as it relates to GE materials in grain trade.

Izydorczyk, M. S., McMillan, T., Bazin, S., Kletke, J., Dushnicky, L. and Dexter, J. 2014. Canadian buckwheat: A unique, useful and under-utilized crop. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 509-524. Buckwheat is a broad-leafed herbaceous annual plant, belonging to the genus Fagopyrum of the family Polygonaceae, the “smartweed” family, also called the buckwheat, rhubarb, or sorrel family. Although not a cereal, buckwheat on the whole resembles cereal grains; it is handled and processed like other cereals and officially listed among the 20 grains inspected and graded by the Canadian Grain Commission. In addition to starch (65-75% dwb) and proteins (13-14% dwb), buckwheat is a source of flavonoids (with rutin being the most distinctive), a group of polyphenolic compounds with a potential to inhibit lipoprotein oxidation and to reduce risk of cardiovascular diseases, and fagopyritols, another group of unique bioactive compounds first identified in buckwheat and associated with reduction of symptoms on non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Buckwheat proteins do not contain gluten, and buckwheat is regarded as an excellent alternative source of protein for individuals with celiac disease. Buckwheat is a particularly good dietary source of Zn, Cu, Mn and Mg. Buckwheat starch and dietary fibre constituents exhibit some distinctive physicochemical and functional properties. Despite the availability of several high-yielding, high-quality Canadian buckwheat cultivars and the well-established production of buckwheat on the Canadian prairies, buckwheat is found in relatively few food products manufactured in North America, and Canada remains largely an exporter of buckwheat rather than its processor. Buckwheat can be roller milled into various types of flours with variable composition and properties. Buckwheat milling fractions can be relatively easily incorporated in a variety of food products to improve their nutritional qualities and potential health benefits, but much more attention should be paid to the development and improvement of modern food processing techniques to improve the palatability and acceptability of buckwheat products.

Diep, S., Daugelaite, D., Strybulevych, A., Scanlon, M., Page, J. and Hatcher, D. 2014. Use of ultrasound to discern differences in Asian noodles prepared across wheat classes and between varieties. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 525-534. Nine wheat varieties, five Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) and four Canada Prairie Spring Red (CPSR), grown at the same locations and composited by variety, were milled to yield 65% extraction flours, which were used to form yellow alkaline raw and cooked noodles. The CWRS flours were ~2% higher in protein content than the CPSR varieties, with varieties within each class exhibiting a wide range in dough strength as determined by Farinograph dough development time and stability. The ultrasonic velocity and attenuation of the raw noodles were measured at 40 kHz in disk-shaped samples, enabling the longitudinal storage modulus, loss modulus and tan ▵ to be determined. Significant differences (P=0.05) between classes and within a class were found to exist for all ultrasonic parameters. In general, the CPSR varieties generated the highest storage moduli values, the lowest loss moduli, and the lowest tan ▵ values, indicating this class/varieties exhibited a more elastic (firmer) raw noodle than the CWRS varieties even at a 2% lower protein content. A significant correlation, r=0.72,0.70, P=0.03, was also found between raw noodle velocity and M“, respectively, with cooked noodle bite as determined by maximum cutting stress.

Edney, M. J., MacLeod, A. L. and LaBerge, D. E. 2014. Evolution of a quality testing program for improving malting barley in Canada. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 535-544. The quality of Canadian malting barley has continually improved since malt barley was exported in the late 1800s. Improvements were linked to a dynamic evaluation system that evolved with a better understanding of malting biochemistry and as suitable methods were developed. Methods became more accurate and more specific in their ability to define quality. They progressed from sensory evaluation, to surmising malt quality from barley protein levels, to the first micro-maltings followed by automated laboratory-scale maltings. Malt quality analysis started simply with malt extract and diastatic power followed by wort protein. As the necessity for cell wall breakdown became better understood, analyses like wort viscosity, fine/coarse grind extract differences and wort β-glucan were adopted. A continuum of cultivars were released in Canada, based on this evaluation system, starting with the six-rowed releases OAC 21, then Montcalm and Bonanza, followed by the two-rowed releases Betzes, Klages, Harrington and AC Metcalfe. Release of future cultivars will depend on an evolving evaluation system that could include; barley homogeneity, specific starch-degrading enzymes, individual amino acids and specific traits such as low lipoxygenase and low phytic acid barley. The result will be development and release of cultivars with better defined quality that can fill specialized niches in the malting and brewing industries of the future.

Fu, B. X., Hatcher, D. W. and Schlichting, L. 2014. Effects of sprout damage on durum wheat milling and pasta processing quality. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 545-553. Due to concerns over the unusual sprouting problem observed in the 2010 harvest of Canada Western Amber Durum Wheat (CWAD), it was deemed necessary by the industry to investigate and determine if appropriate tolerances for sprout damage were in place, particularly for No. 3 CWAD. More information on the impact of visually assessed sprout damage on durum quality is needed to better define the associated acceptable level of falling number (FN). To this end, two different samples of CWAD were sourced for this project: a No. 1 CWAD (FN 479 s) and a No. 5 CWAD (FN 68 s) degraded primarily due to sprout damage. A total of 19 samples were used in the study, i.e., a series of eight composite samples prepared by blending the No. 1 with increasing amounts of No. 5, as well as the two control extremes. The FNs of the blends were well characterized, displaying an incremental decrease of ~50 s with increasing sprout damage. Each wheat sample was milled in duplicate. The resulting semolina was analyzed for ash, pigment, pigment loss, yellowness (b*), and speckiness. Protein content, gluten index and alveograph parameters were also evaluated. The semolina was made into spaghetti for colour measurement and texture evaluation. Results indicated that there was no change in ash content, pigment or semolina b* value even at 50% blend (FN 101 s). However, a noticeable increase in total speck count and the number of dark specks in the semolina were detected once the blending ratio reached the 35% level (FN 208 s). The increase in speck count was largely due to mildew associated with the No. 5 CWAD sample. The influence of sprout damage on gluten strength was minimal at all levels of blending. A significant increase in spaghetti redness (a*) was detected in blends with 25% (FN 152 s) or more of No. 5 CWAD. A decline in spaghetti brightness (L*) was also observed when transitioning from the 15% blend (FN 204 s) and very evident at the 35% blend (FN 123 s) level. No discernible differences due to sprout damage were noticed within the composite blends in terms of processing properties, firmness and cooking loss of the cooked pasta, although spaghetti made from the No. 5 sample showed slight checking, higher cooking loss and lower firmness.

Tittlemier, S. A., Roscoe, M., Trelka, R., Patrick, S. K., Bamforth, J. M., Gräfenhan, T., Schlichting, L. and Fu, B. X. 2014. Fate of moniliformin during milling of Canadian durum wheat, processing, and cooking of spaghetti. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 555-563. Samples of clean Canadian durum were fortified with kernels damaged by Fusarium avenaceum at levels corresponding to the grading tolerances for Fusarium damaged kernels in Canadian durum wheat. Fusarium avenaceum produces the mycotoxin moniliformin (MON); the fortified durum samples contained MON ranging from 0.16 to 0.90 mg kg^-1. The fate of MON was followed during milling of the fortified durum samples, as well as during the preparation and cooking of spaghetti made with the fortified durum. The majority of MON was associated with semolina, implying that removal of bran would not have a large impact on reducing MON concentrations. However, F. avenaceum DNA was more evenly distributed amongst the milling products, suggesting that MON underwent translocation from mycelium to endosperm in the damaged kernels. There was an apparent loss of MON when spaghetti was prepared from semolina. From an overall dietary exposure point of view, the cooking of MON-containing pasta in water will reduce dietary exposure to the water-soluble MON via leaching to the cooking water. However, the lack of quantifiable MON in samples prepared from higher grade Canada Western Amber Durum (which contained lower amounts of Fusarium damaged kernels) suggests that dietary exposure to MON from contaminated pasta is not likely to occur.

Wang, N. and Castonguay, G. 2014. Effect of maturity on physicochemical and cooking characteristics in yellow peas (Pisum sativum). Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 565-571. The effect of maturity on physicochemical and cooking properties of yellow peas was investigated. Results indicated that when compared with mature yellow peas, immature yellow peas exhibited significantly lower seed weight (16.4-18.1% less) and smaller seed size (5.9-6.9% less), but higher water hydration capacity (3.7-11.5% more). Significant shorter cooking time but higher firmness value of cooked seeds was observed for immature yellow peas than for mature yellow peas. Immature yellow peas contained significantly higher mean protein content (254.2 vs. 234.6 g kg^-1 DM), higher mean crude fiber (67.8 vs. 63.0 g kg^-1 DM), and higher mean ash content (31.5 vs. 29.4 g kg^-1 DM), but significantly lower mean starch content (432.5 vs. 451.3 g kg^-1 DM) as compared with mature yellow peas. Sucrose content was significantly higher in immature yellow peas than that in mature yellow peas, whereas stachyose and verbascose contents were significantly higher in mature yellow peas than in immature yellow peas. Phytic acid content in immature yellow peas was significantly higher than that in mature yellow peas, while trypsin inhibitor activity was not significant. This information will be useful in setting the grading standards for yellow peas in Canada.

Izydorczyk, M. S., McMillan, T., Bazin, S., Kletke, J., Dushnicky, L., Dexter, J., Chepurna, A. and Rossnagel, B. 2014. Milling of Canadian oats and barley for functional food ingredients: Oat bran and barley fibre-rich fractions. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 573-586. Oats and barley are recognized for their valuable fibre constituents having protective and therapeutic effects against the development of diet-related disorders. Mixed linkage (1-3), (1-4)-β-D-glucans, the major dietary fibre constituents in oats and barley, have been linked to blood cholesterol lowering properties of these grains. The objective of this study was to compare oat bran and barley fibre-rich fractions (FRF) as two products with elevated levels of β-glucans and obtained by similar roller milling processes. The content of β-glucan in oat brans prepared from three different cultivars (AC Morgan, HiFi, and CDC ProFi) ranged from 7.90 to 9.50%, whereas the content of β-glucans in FRF prepared from three barley cultivars (CDC McGwire, CDC Fibar, and CDC Hilose) ranged from 9.31 to 18.19% (dwb). The yields of oat brans ranged from 44 to 49% and the yields of barley FRF from 39-49%. Both preparations contained higher amounts of arabinoxylans, proteins, and ash compared with the original grains. The oat brans were made up mainly of fragments containing the outer grain layers with a substantial portion of the subaleurone starchy endosperm attached to them, whereas the barley FRF consisted primarily of fragments containing the endosperm cell walls, with a smaller proportion of the outer grain tissues. The barley FRF contained smaller particles with broader distribution of particle size than the oat brans. The oat bran particles had higher bulk density and lower porosity than the barley FRF. Both preparations showed pronounced viscosity-building properties when dispersed in water at 45°C, but exhibited different viscosity profiles and differences in the attainable viscosity values.

MacLeod, A. L., Langrell, D. E. and Edney, M. J. 2014. Comparison of harvest and export surveys of Canadian malting barley quality. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 587-592. The Canadian Grain Commission conducts an annual harvest survey to determine the quality of each year's malting barley crop. Throughout the year, quality testing is also performed on export shipments of malting barley as part of a quality monitoring program. The testing protocol includes barley quality parameters as well as micro-malting and malt quality analysis. In this study, results from the two surveys were compared over an 11-yr period. Overall, the harvest survey was a reliable predictor of the quality of barley exports. Barley quality was more closely correlated between the two surveys than malt quality. Several factors were identified which contributed to differences between the two survey programs.

Barthet, V. J., Klensporf-Pawlik, D. and Przybylski, R. 2014. Antioxidant activity of flaxseed meal components. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 593-602. The meals of borage, hemp, Solin, golden, and brown flaxseed, including the meals of dehulled flaxseed and their corresponding hulls, were reconstituted with 40% of standard flaxseed oil and stored for 2 wk to assess if these meals had any antioxidant activity to protect in situ oil from oxidation. Weekly measured peroxide and aldehyde values showed that Solin, golden and brown flaxseed meals had more effective antioxidant activity than hemp and borage meals. Flaxseed hull showed very weak antioxidant potential, whereas dehulled meals maintained their antioxidant activity. This suggested that secoisolariciresinol diglucoside was not acting as the primary antioxidant of flaxseed meal. The seed antioxidant activity was greatly affected by water extraction, suggesting that the system contains water-soluble components. When flaxseed oil was recombined with the freeze-dried water extracts of flaxseed meal some loses of antioxidant activity were observed. The results showed that the water-extracted components retained some antioxidant activity compared with the original flaxseed meal antioxidant activity. These results indicate that the flaxseed antioxidant activities were mainly due to a water-soluble system - probably proteins: however, more than one group of components of the flax meal may be involved to provide the seed with its effective and unique antioxidant properties.