Species of decapod crustaceans (crabs) that are either new or imperfectly known as fossils are described from two Pleistocene formations in eastern Jamaica. The first nominal decapod from the early Pleistocene Manchioneal Formation is Herbstia milnei sp. nov., known from a partial carapace. It has a large carapace with short, spinose anterolateral margins; two spines on the posterolateral margins; and a pair of tubercles on each prologastric lobe. All other species are known from the late Pleistocene Port Morant Formation. The hermit crab Dardanus portmorantensis sp. nov. is described from a left propodus. The manus is rectangular, with a straight upper margin bearing three rows of spines, a scaly to granulate outer surface and a sparsely scaled inner surface; the fixed finger is about two thirds the length of manus. Platylambrus sp. cf. F. serratus H. Milne Edwards is recorded from the Port Morant Formation for the first time.

The Olive-throated Parakeet (Aratinga nana) occurs on the eastern slope of Middle America and the island of Jamaica. A resident population has been recently discovered in remote areas of Hispaniola, where it might represent an overlooked relict population or a recent introduction. If the Hispaniolan population of A. nana is native, then it would merit conservation attention. Conversely, if the Hispaniolan population is a recent non-natural introduction, the potential for competitive interactions with the threatened endemic Hispaniolan Parakeet, Aratinga chloroptera, should be assessed. To explore the origins of the Hispaniolan A. nana population, we sequenced the mitochondrially encoded ND2 gene from individuals from five mainland populations of A. nana vicinalis and A. nana astec, as well as the Jamaican A. nana nana and the Hispaniolan A. nana (subspecies unknown). Mitochondrial variation was highly structured into well differentiated island and mainland clades separated by close to 2% nucleotide divergence, but within each group there was very low ND2 haplotype variation. These results suggest that the Jamaican and Hispaniolan populations are evolutionarily distinct from the mainland populations, and they add support to the hypothesis that the Hispaniolan A. nana population results from a recent, human-mediated introduction.

Interactions between heterospecific species with similar sexual signals can lead to errors in mate attraction and species recognition. As a consequence sexual signals might diverge to reduce communication errors. Since high-density populations create more noise than low-density populations we hypothesize that individuals should suffer less acoustic interference from sympatric congeners with low-density populations than higher density populations of congeners. Even though species might be sympatric at multiple sites, only populations at sites with a relatively high abundance of both species should require one species to make vocal adjustments that minimize acoustic interference. To test this hypothesis we studied Eleutherodactylus coqui populations in the presence of relatively high numbers of E. portoricensis and in the presence of relatively low abundance of E. portoricensis. We found subtle differences in advertisement calls of E. coqui at locations where E. portoricensis had relatively high abundance compared to locations where E. portoricensis was absent or had relatively lower abundance. Differences in E. coqui call structure were linked to the portion of the call used for mate attraction and did not affect the portion of the advertisement call that is used for territorial interactions. The results indicate that the relative abundance of a congener is an important factor that can promote differentiation amongst vocal signals to increase signal discrimination between the calls of multiple species.

In the Luquillo Experimental Forest (LEF) of Puerto Rico, composition of terrestrial gastropod assemblages exhibits little temporal variation, even in response to intense hurricanes. One might therefore expect snail assemblages to be equilibrial and structured by interspecific interactions such as competition. If competition is strong and persistent throughout an assemblage, then it should manifest as density compensation (a negative correlation in population density between competitors) and be most pronounced for species pairs that are morphologically similar, as they should compete most strongly for resources. We assessed the degree to which terrestrial snails in the LEF exhibit density compensation, from both spatial and temporal perspectives. In general, density compensation was weak, especially from a spatial perspective. Moreover, the degree of density compensation was not significantly associated with dissimilarity in body size or shell shape. These results suggest that external factors such as predation or disturbance probably maintain population densities at low enough levels that the effects of interspecific competition do not become intense or persistent enough to mold patterns of assemblage structure for terrestrial snails.

We applied a novel approach using still digital photography and image analysis to estimate emergence of bats at Tou Santi Cave, Dominica, West Indies. Although bat emergences are commonly studied, a population estimate of this lava tube has never been conducted. Known species inhabiting Tou Santi Cave include Brachyphylla cavernarum, Monophyllus plethodon, and Natalus stramineus. Using digital photography, we documented emerging bats at 30 second intervals for 130 minutes. Using image analysis software, we counted the number of bats in each frame and created 3 data sets. To find the total number of bats in each data set, multipliers were derived based on the 3 seconds it took the bats to pass from the bottom to the top of the framed area for the first 40 minutes, and 2 seconds for the remaining 90 minutes. The flight interval was a crucial element of this study. From these data we created 3 histograms to graphically summarize the number of emerging bats over time. The first 2 histograms represent bat counts at every 2 minutes. Combining all of the data to represent bat counts every minute resulted in a total estimate of 65,950 bats. Digital photography and image analysis software provide an efficient census technique for estimating the size of bat emergences.

Regression models to predict total tree height and maximum crown radius as a function of diameter at breast height were developed for Caribbean trees using data collected by the U.S. Forest Service in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and Territory of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Nonlinear models predicting height fit the data well with an overall pseudo-R² = 0.9220, as did models of height to diameter by Holdridge life zone and by the most frequently encountered species. The linear model predicting maximum crown radius for all trees combined fit the data poorly (R² = 0.3478). Crown model fits showed only moderate improvements when the data were modeled by species, crown class, and inventory measurement protocol, highlighting the variability of Caribbean forest tree crowns within and between species. Height models presented here will be useful for applications such as growth and yield simulation, forest health monitoring, and wildlife habitat modeling, but the crown radius prediction models only should be applied with an understanding of their limitations.

The conditions under which coffee is grown may affect its long-term sustainability through effects on soil fauna, including earthworms, which have a profound effect on abiotic and biotic properties and processes in natural and agricultural ecosystems. We examined differences in earthworm populations among sun (SUN) and shade (SHD) coffee and secondary forest (FOR) ecosystems, as well as soil order (Oxisols, Ultisols, Inceptisols) in western-central Puerto Rico. Ecosystem type significantly affected earthworm population density (individuals/m²), which followed the order: SUN (281) > SHD (125) = FOR (37). Earthworm biomass (g fresh weight/m²) was also significantly affected by ecosystem type, following the order: SUN (71) > SHD (34) = FOR (12). In general, neither earthworm biomass nor abundance was significantly related to litter quantity, litter composition or soil properties for any of the ecosystems studied. The absence of significant differences between SHD and FOR ecosystems suggests similarity in those environmental variables that constrain earthworm populations. The larger earthworm populations in coffee cultivated under sunlight may indicate that earthworms play a more important role in organic matter translocation and decomposition, nutrient cycling, and soil physical structure than in shade coffee or forest ecosystems.

Eleven samples of moss, lichen, and leaf litter were collected at four sites on Barbados, an island of the Lesser Antilles in the West Indies, in January, 2009 and examined for the presence of water bears (Phylum Tardigrada). Although no tardigrades were found in leaf litter, 84 specimens and 11 eggs were present in moss and lichen samples. Four tardigrade species (Macrobiotus harmsworthi, Macrobiotus hufelandi, Paramacrobiotus richtersi, and Minibiotus intermedius) are considered cosmopolitan, and have been found on other Caribbean islands. The fifth species, Milnesium barbadosense sp. n., is described and illustrated. This new species is characterized by having a smooth cuticle, a posterior insertion of the stylet supports on the buccal tube, thick main claw branches with very small accessory points, slender secondary claw branches with short basal spurs, and no eyes. The most likely sources of tardigrades on Barbados are colonists from older islands in the Lesser Antilles, or immigrants brought in by humans on introduced plants.

Low stature woody vegetation of the south-west coast of Puerto Rico grows on a rocky calcareous substrate where plants can only root in holes, cracks, and crevices accumulating water and sediments that allow seed germination and seedling development. Being in a coastal location these communities are influenced by steady onshore winds, high solar radiation, and salt spray. We studied dwarfed forest communities located at the southern limit of the Guánica State Forest, Puerto Rico, that have a well known floristic composition, but with little information on their organization and heterogeneity. We quantified the species composition of vegetation plots located along the southern coastline and compared their structure and diversity with those of dry forests on neighboring hills. The hypothesis was that forest structural development was negatively associated with proximity to the coast line and altitude above sea level. Species richness of the coastal dwarf forest area was similar to that of inland semi deciduous forest plots with which it shares at least 15 woody species. In addition, it contains a number of species resistant to salt spray and possibly brackish water, such asConocarpus erectus, Strumpfia maritima, and Coccoloba uvifera. The average canopy height of the coastal vegetation increases from 0.4 to 2.3 m between 0 to 150 m from the coastline and 7 to 19 m elevation above sea level. Within this spatial range the predominant bearing of the canopy changes from a SE-NW direction to a SW-NE direction revealing the influence of onshore winds in combination with salt spray. The dominant woody species occur as multistemmed individuals, a characteristic probably associated to occasional heavy winds and recurrent drought that impairs shoot apical dominance. Floristic and structure comparisons with mature forest plots located between 25 and 150 m altitude showed that the coastal dwarf vegetation has a more even species dominance distribution associated with the discontinuity of substrate available for establishment.

To examine influences of predation risk on escape in the Jamaican trunk-ground anole, Anolis lineatopus, I simulated an approaching predator. Theory predicts that flight initiation distance and distance fled increase as risk increases. Flight initiation distance (predator-prey distance when escape begins) was not affected by starting distance (predator-prey distance when approach begins) or sex. Flight initiation distance and distance fled were longer when lizards were farther from refuge. Flight initiation distance was longer during fast than slow approaches, but approach speed did not affect distance fled because most lizards stopped fleeing before entering refuge. Flight initiation distance was longer when lizards were approached directly than indirectly and were partially concealed than in the open. Both flight initiation distance and distance fled were longer for the second of two approaches due to predator persistence. Lizards were more likely to flee when a predator standing nearby turned toward than away from them. Where differences occurred, flight initiation distance and distance fled increased as risk increased for all risk factors. Anolis lineatopus adaptively adjusts its escape to numerous risks in accordance with theory. Its method of escape when on ground by running toward and stopping adjacent to or on trees appears to be typical for trunk-ground anoles, and may lessen effects of predator approach speed on distance fled and probability of entering refuge. Differences among anole ecomorphs in microhabitats, morphology affecting escape ability, escape methods and destinations is hypothesized to lead to differences among them in effects of risk factors on escape.

Excavations at North Storr's Lake (SS-4) on San Salvador, Bahamas have yielded turtle barnacle wall plates (shell compartments) in association with skeletal remains of sea turtle and charcoal dated to ca. A.D. 932–1552. This is one of the few cases in which direct and indirect radiometric dates have been reported for archaeological sea turtle barnacles. The turtle barnacle has been identified as Chelonibia testudinaria (Linnaeus, 1758), a widespread, commensal species found on all genera of Cheloniidae in the world's oceans. Chelonibia testudinaria is the most often reported sea turtle barnacle and is commonly found on Caretta caretta (loggerhead) and Chelonia mydas (green turtle) dating as far back as the Miocene epoch. Wall plates of Chelonibia testudinaria occur in stratigraphic association with both loggerhead and green sea turtle remains at North Storr's Lake, appearing in the same archaeological strata as the sea turtle, therefore the association is clear. Sea turtle species were identified using stable isotope analysis (SIA) on bone; barnacles were identified by one of us (JDZ) using modern biological specimens for comparison. Accelerator Mass Spectrometer (AMS) dates from carbonized wood and bone in site stratigraphy, and dates on the barnacles themselves, span the period ca. A.D. 932–1552, indicating sea turtle exploitation by the indigenous Lucayans several centuries prior to the arrival of Columbus on San Salvador. AMS dates, site stratigraphy, and species identifications suggest that green turtle may have been harvested earlier and over a longer time span (ca. A.D. 1100–1500) than loggerhead (ca. A.D. 1311–1354). Based on these results, this locality at the North Storr's Lake site is interpreted as a traditional sea turtle butchery site where multiple species and individuals were repeatedly butchered over a relatively lengthy time period.

Hurricanes are important disturbances shaping tropical forest structure. In the last 35 years the frequency and intensity of these events have changed, and it is predicted that intense hurricanes will become even more frequent with continued ocean surface warming. In 2005, the northeastern region of the Yucatan peninsula was hit by two subsequent category-5 hurricanes (3 months apart), Emily and Wilma. I conducted vegetation surveys to evaluate forest structure and composition soon after each disturbance and after one year, determining number of species, number of stems, basal area, and type of impact presented (defoliated, snapped, or uprooted), for all stems ≥ 5 cm DBH in two different forest stand ages (8–15 yr and > 30 yr). Number of species and basal area varied by forest stand age and survey; stem density decreased after the hurricanes. The highest percentage of damaged individuals was after the second hurricane (60%), but one year later this percentage was greatly reduced (13%). In all surveys, defoliation was the most common damage and uprooting the least common. In general, larger trees suffered more uprooting and snapping than did smaller ones. The importance value of most common species remained similar over time but increased for a few late successional species by the final survey. This forest showed a high degree of recovery to multiple disturbances, reflecting a long history of adaptation to these events.

Most angiosperms sustain pollinator visits by offering a reward, such as nectar or pollen, yet there are plants that do not offer rewards and instead depend on deception for successful pollen transfer. Unless rewardless plants have an extremely efficient means of deceit or are autogamous, they tend to experience less fruit set than those that offer pollinator rewards. In Puerto Rico, we studied the reproductive biology of a rewardless epiphytic orchid, Pleurothallis ruscifolia (Pleurothallidinae), a widespread Neotropical species. The Pleurothallidinae are primarily myophilous, self-incompatible, and pollinator dependent for fruit set and seed production. However, because our preliminary observations indicated that populations of P. ruscifolia on the island of Puerto Rico exhibited an unusually high fruit set, we hypothesized that our population is autogamous and that reproductive effort and fruiting success are resource limited. We monitored 168 plants in a single population during the 2009 reproductive season to determine the mating system of P. ruscifolia while looking for evidence of reproductive constraints. Fruit set in our population was high (66%) and no floral visitors were seen. Fruit set for our pollinator exclusion experiment was no different than fruit set for open pollinated plants. Most plants produced both chasmogamous and cleistogamous flowers, the majority of fruits produced by the latter. Furthermore, reproductive effort and fruiting success were limited by plant size, which is likely the result of resource constraints. We expect that autogamy is prevalent in P. ruscifolia of the West Indies, but outcrossing should be dominant in continental populations. Selection for reproductive assurance in the absence or rarity of an effective pollinator is the likely process leading to this autogamous system.

Over the past four decades population numbers of Cardisoma guanhumi in Puerto Rico have been declining, and the effects of land-use/land-cover (LULC) changes on their distribution and habitat have never been investigated. Our objectives were 1) to develop a spatially explicit distribution model using Geographic Information System for C. guanhumi in the San Juan Bay Estuary (SJBE) and Jobos Bay Estuary (JBE) and 2) to determine if population declines are due to reduction in distribution and habitat loss. Photointerpretation from 1936, 1971/1977, and 2002 for both our study sites illustrated drastic changes to LULC. There was 100 % loss of agriculture and 182 % increase in urban development and 77 % loss in agriculture and 650 % increase in urban development for SJBE and JBE respectively. The conversion of land use from agriculture to urban development significantly reduced the areas available for land crab habitat. We suspect that the agricultural activities in Puerto Rico provided novel habitat for C. guanhumi during the 1930's to 1970's resulting in higher population densities and inland migration. With the collapse of the agricultural industry in Puerto Rico population numbers of C. guanhumi consequently declined. Therefore, we conclude that the observed declines are due not only to overexploitation as is commonly suggested but also due to the reduction in their distribution and habitat loss. Our study provides explicit spatial information for the management and conservation of the few remaining habitats of C. guanhumi in Puerto Rico.

Several mapping techniques (aerial photography and acoustics) were combined to produce bathymetric and marine benthic habitats maps of Martinique (FWI).

The eastern Atlantic coast is characterised by an outer spur and groove reef and inner lagoon system. The Caribbean coast shows steep slopes with sporadic fringing reefs, except on the south where a well-developed and continuous reef structure exists.

The final maps show important differences in the distribution of habitats and communities between the Caribbean and the Atlantic sides. It appears algal dominated communities have replaced most of the historic coral communities of the Atlantic double bank barrier reef. Portions of fringing reefs still remain along the barrier and protect wide areas of seagrass beds and numerous bays and inlets. The largest reef structure is located along the Southern Caribbean coast, and is an active and productive ecosystem. The North Caribbean coast is characterised by non-framebuilding reefs and limited seagrass beds which are restricted due to a steeply sloping seabed.

Maps obtained give an overview of the Martinique coastal benthic habitats and their distribution with an overall accuracy of 95.45% for physical substrata and 96.67% for biological communities. In addition to their use in ecological studies, these data provide valuable tools for management and sustainable exploitation of marine resources.

Soils may be the most important habitats for micro-organisms that produce atmospheric trace gases such as methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and nitric oxide (NO). One of the principal reasons for the alteration of the fluxes of these gases to the atmosphere, especially in the tropics, may be deforestation or land disturbance for human activities such as the creation of croplands or pastures. The purpose of this study was (1) to determine if land use history has an effect on the densities and activities of ammonium oxidizing bacteria and densities of denitrifying bacteria and (2) to determine if different genera of ammonium bacteria are present in the soils of the study sites in the different life zones of Puerto Rico. Concentrations of nitrifying bacteria ranged from 5.5 × 10² to 2.3 × 10⁵ MPN/g soil whereas concentrations of denitrifying bacteria ranged from 2.2 × 10⁵ to 1.5 × 10⁶ MPN/g of soil. Statistical analyses showed no significant difference between the densities of these bacteria in soils and the type of land use but there was a significant difference between the densities of bacterial populations and the months of sampling in one of the areas that was studied. The nitrification potential rates (measures activities of ammonium oxidizing bacteria) were not statistically significant between the soil soils studied in the same area or between the months in which these were studied. It seems that the land use does not affect the concentrations of these bacterial populations as much as the variations that occur seasonally (monthly). Ammonium oxidizing bacteria of the genus Nitrosospira are more abundant, than the genus Nitrosomonas in the soils studied.

Here I report a fossil microvertebrate fauna from a late Holocene cave deposit in northwestern Cuba. This study provides new chronological data for the understanding of the post-Pleistocene survival of some of Cuba's rarest extinct bats, and a post-Columbian record of Desmodus rotundus. Remains were excavated from a superficial, mound-like deposit with no dicernible stratigraphy. The bones of 13 bat species, one owl, one rail, a small colubrid snake, one frog, a nesophontid shrew, a rat, a mouse, and two capromyid rodents were extracted from the assemblage. The chiropterans were the most abundant and included the extinct taxa Desmodus rotundus and Artibeus anthonyi, the rare Lasiurus insularis,and the endangered Natalus primus. The mixed assemblage originated from accumulated owl pellets and carcasses of roosting bats. Three Artibeus jamaicensis scapulae from the same level and bone coloration as the Desmodus material yielded a modern radiocarbon content indicative of post-thermonuclear testing era (114.9 % ± 0.6 pMC), indicating an essentially modern age for the specimens. Material from the deepest level, however, is interpreted to be older due to factors such as a probable slow rate of accumulation, difference in bone coloration, and mineralization. These results support the survival of some extinct bat species well into the late Holocene of Cuba.

Drifting and wrack seaweeds were collected from four beaches off San Andres island, Caribbean Colombia, between February and November 2009 for a taxonomic survey of the floating flora in the area. We found 1 species of Cyanophyta, 28 species of Rhodophyta, 26 species of Phaeophyceae, and 26 species of Chlorophyta, for a total of 80 taxa. Of these, 24 species (30% of the species encountered) were new records, 18 for the archipelago and 6 for Colombia. These new records increase by 11.9% the number of species in the region recorded to date. The Phaeophyceae constituted the largest biomass, and most Rhodophyta species found were small epiphytes on Padina, Dictyota and Dictyopteris.

A small population of Xylosma buxifolia A. Gray (Flacourtiaceae) was recently discovered in pine rockland habitat of Long Pine Key, Everglades National Park, Florida, USA. This is the first known report of this species in the United States. Based on the proximity to naturally occurring populations in the northern Bahamas, the similarity of habitat where plants were found to Bahamian pinelands and the relatively unaltered state of the pine rocklands where plants were found, it is believed that this species is a naturally occurring component of the flora of Florida.

The natural history of Pseudochrysops bornoi, native to Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico and Cuba, is poorly known. Based on observations of a population of P. b. escobioi made in March 2006 and March 2007 near Guánica, Puerto Rico, we describe likely host plants, flight behavior, mating flight and oviposition. On multiple occasions P. b. escobioi laid eggs in the developing inflorescences of acacia (Acacia farnesiana) and cinazo Pithecellobium circinale.

One of the most striking examples of plant-pollinator co-adaptation is between the heliconias Heliconia bihai and H. caribaea, and the Lesser Antillean hummingbird - the purple-throated carib Eulampis jugularis. To date, the purple-throated carib is the only reported pollinator of these heliconias on the islands of St. Lucia and Dominica. Here, we show that the pollination of H. bihai and H. caribaea in the Lesser Antilles is more complex than previously hypothesized, locally involving several hummingbird species, specifically the green-throated carib Eulampis holosericeus, rufous-breasted hermit Glaucis hirsuta, blue-headed hummingbird Cyanophaia bicolor, and the antillean crested hummingbird Orthorhyncus cristatus. Hopefully, our observations will stimulate research into whether H. bihai and H. caribaea show local co-adaptation toward hummingbird pollinators other than the purple-throated carib. This would further verify the co-adaptation hypothesis between heliconias and Lesser Antillean hummingbirds, although, depending on locality, more hummingbird species have to be added as mutualistic partners.

We here describe scalation in a large sample (n = 80) of American crocodiles, Crocodylus acutus, collected from the coastal zone of northern Belize. Differences between our data and the few published descriptions of C. acutus were found among post-occipital, nuchal, dorsal, ventral, and double-crested caudal scale groups, suggesting that interpopulational differences in scalation may exist in this widely distributed species. Whether populations can be identified on the basis of scalation remains to be determined.

Angelfishes, one of the most characteristic elements in shallow tropical reefs, are known for the very high incidence of hybridization among sister species. In the western Atlantic Ocean, the hybrid of the Blue and Queen angelfishes, Holacanthus bermudensis X H. ciliaris (called the Townsend angelfish, or “H. townsendi”) has been described as a resident of the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, Bahamas and Bermuda, where the parental taxa coexist. In this paper we report the presence of a specimen of the Townsend angelfish at Puerto Morelos (Mexican Caribbean), and also refer to other observations in Honduras and Costa Rica. These findings prompted a review of the geographic distribution of the parental species, and it was discovered that the range of H. bermudensis (nominally restricted to the Gulf of Mexico and latitudes north of 24°N), is actually much larger that thought and extends to the central Caribbean Sea and South America; in fact, the Blue angelfish is sympatric with H. ciliaris in most of its distribution. In this context we suggest that the presence of individuals of the Townsend angelfish in México and Central America is explained by the coexistence and local hybridization of the Blue and Queen angelfishes.

Native to Cuba, the Bahamas and the Cayman Islands, the Cuban Treefrog (CTF) is an invasive species in Florida, with the ability to inflict serious ecological damage to invaded habitats. By examining the diet of the CTF, a known predator of native frogs, better predictions may be made of the impacts on native species and ecosystems. From 2002 – 2003, CTF diet was investigated in south Florida at four sites, two each within pine rockland and mangrove habitat. Within each habitat, one site exhibited a low density of CTFs and the other a high density of CTFs. CTFs were captured in PVC pipes attached to trees and stomach contents were examined after euthanasia. Beetles were the most numerous and widely consumed prey item among sites; roaches, orthopterans, spiders, ants, and caterpillars were also major dietary components. There were significant differences in the proportion of taxa consumed by CTFs between low and high density populations within each habitat, with the low density site in every instance having the higher proportion. Across habitats, ants comprised a significantly higher proportion of the diet in mangroves, whereas beetles, orthopterans, and snails comprised a significantly higher proportion of the diet in pine rocklands. Approximately 3.5% of all stomachs examined contained anuran remains. Though not significant, CTFs from low density sites consumed a higher proportion of frogs than those at high density sites. Corroborating previous research, the data show the CTF to be a generalist feeder, consuming a wide variety of invertebrate prey, with anurans playing only a minor role in the overall diet.