Our primary goal in organizing the symposium “Fishes and Morphology Today” (Albuquerque, 14–15 July 2013) and editing these symposium proceedings in Copeia is to showcase the results of current morphological studies and their impact on our understanding of different groups of fishes and their evolutionary history. Morphology remains key to taxonomic, systematic, and evolutionary studies of extant and fossil fishes (and all other organisms) as was convincingly illustrated by contributions on extant and fossil fishes presented in the symposium and now in these symposium proceedings. Here we emphasize and promote the value of morphological research. This effort and others from the worldwide fish community, together with genomic and molecular studies, effectively contribute to the Tree of Life of Fishes and to training programs on biodiversity. Without the underpinnings of a morphological perspective in systematics and evolutionary history, there are few engaging questions to ask. Furthermore, the more we know about the morphology, the more engaging the questions become.

The vertebrate skeleton is a plastic organ system and the skeleton of teleosts is no exception. Epigenetic factors during development influence skeletal anatomy, mechanical properties, and meristic characters. The adult teleost skeleton undergoes changes connected to mechanical adaptation, repair, mineral homeostasis, sexual maturation, and aging. Vestiges, rudiments, atavisms, hyperostotic bones, additional tooth rows, and variable numbers of vertebral bodies are prominent examples of variable characters. Morphological changes require changes of skeletal structures on the cellular level, including modulation, transdifferentiation, and remodelling. Alterations at the cellular level are best understood by acknowledging those characters that distinguish teleost skeletons from mammalian skeletons: (a) the absence of osteocytes in most species of teleosts; (b) abundant mononucleated osteoclasts that perform non-lacunar bone resorption; (c) a phosphorous- rather than a calcium-driven mineral homeostasis; and (d) a variety of tissue types intermediate between bone and cartilage. This brief account of teleost skeletal plasticity shows that the teleost skeleton is a lifelong plastic organ system. Using examples, also from our own studies, we provide examples of skeletal plasticity at various hierarchical levels.

The structure of the caudal skeleton of extant teleost fishes has been interpreted in two different ways. In a diural interpretation, a caudal skeleton is composed of two centra articulated with one to six hypurals. Most subsequent authors have followed this interpretation. In contrast, a polyural interpretation considers the teleost fin to be derived from a fully metameristic ancestral bauplan originally composed of a one-to-one relationship between neural arches, centra (when present), and hypurals. Three different interpretations of the identity and homology of skeletal components of the caudal skeleton of the teleost fish Danio rerio have been proposed, two from a diural perspective and one from a polyural perspective. We examine each caudal skeletal component of Danio rerio from both a developmental and phylogenetic perspective. We propose that a polyural interpretation of structures is consistent with the current interpretation of the basal neopterygian caudal fin for this model organism rather than the older diural interpretation that does not take into account the metamerism observed in caudal structures during development. The polyural interpretation suggests several shared evolutionary innovations of major clades that would remain undiscovered under the older diural naming paradigm and makes the terminology of the parts of the caudal fin of Danio rerio strictly comparable to more basal fishes.

A survey of the articulation between two of the dermal elements of the pectoral girdle, the posttemporal and supracleithrum, across 308 euteleost species in 40 orders and 181 families revealed considerable variation. This variation was categorized first by number of distinct contact points, which varied between zero and three. It was then subdivided further into a total of 17 morphotypes based on the observed patterns of variation in the form of these contact points, the plane in which they are oriented, and their relative positions on each bone. Given the distribution of these morphotypes across examined taxa, we hypothesize that a simple laminar morphotype, in which the posttemporal and supracleithrum are syndesmotically bound and no obvious contact points are discernable, represents the plesiomorphic condition. Establishing homology of contact points for many morphotypes remains challenging. However, some morphotypes appear to support previously recognized clades and thus represent putative synapomorphies; these include possession of two contact points (Acanthomorphata) and possession of a specialized three contact point morphotype (Acanthuridae Zanclidae). The posttemporal-supracleithrum articulation is a variable character system that may be phylogenetically informative for future morphological investigations of acanthomorph clades.

Cusk-eels of the order Ophidiiformes are a morphologically diverse assemblage of eel-like, elongate, posteriorly tapering percomorph fishes that occur worldwide in marine waters, from tropical reef areas to the deep sea. The about 400 extant and fossil species included in the ophidiiform clade are arranged into two main lineages, Bythitoidei and Ophidioidei, based on reproductive biology and the position of the anterior nostrils. The anatomy and phylogenetic relationships of these fishes are largely unknown, and the fossil record has not provided substantial information about the earliest phases of their evolutionary history. †Pastorius methenyi, new genus and species, the oldest member of the Ophidiiformes based on articulated skeletal remains, is described herein based on a single specimen collected from the Campanian-Maastrichtian organic-rich laminated limestone of the Liburnica Formation outcropping near the village of Trebiciano, north-eastern Italy. The comparative analysis of osteological and meristic features indicates that †Pastorius methenyi is characterized by at least one of the probable ophidiiform synapomorphies (exclusion of the supraoccipital from the posterior cranial margin by substantial posterodorsal extension of the exoccipitals) and exhibits a unique combination of characters, including a posteriorly broadly expanded maxilla; supramaxilla present; eight branchiostegals; 39 vertebrae; first neural spine shorter than those following; neural arch of first vertebra feebly connected to the first vertebral centrum though a narrow pedestal of bone; anterior abdominal vertebrae ostensibly lacking expanded ribs; caudal skeleton with ostensibly fused first preural, first ural centrum, first uroneural, and ventral hypural plate, and ostensibly fused second ural centrum and dorsal hypural plate, autogenous parhypural, and two epurals; caudal fin free, with 13 rays; a single ossified supraneural located in front of the second neural spine; and notably reduced number of dorsal- and anal-fin rays. †Pastorius is placed as the sister-group of all recent bythitoids, even if some features might indicate that it represents the sister-group of all ophidiiforms. †Pastorius provides the first unequivocal evidence that percomorphs with very elongate and compressed bodies were in existence in the Cretaceous, indicating that this group was characterized by a very high disparity and a vast diversification of bodyplans well before the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction.

Gobiiformes are one of the most versatile groups among teleosts and show countless adaptations. Their fossil record encompasses numerous otolith-based species, but only a few species that are based on skeletons, and fossil skeletons with otoliths preserved in situ are exceptionally rare. Here, articulated skeletons, some with otoliths in situ, from the lower and middle Miocene of Southern Germany (Illerkirchberg, Öhningen) are re-investigated to clarify whether “Cottus brevis Ag.” and “Cottus brevis Ag.?” correspond to the same species. Our data show that the latter actually represents a previously unrecognized new species, for which we introduce the species epithet gaudanti. In both species, the palatine is T-shaped and the entopterygoid is absent, as is characteristic for the Gobiidae, but the number of branchiostegals is six, which is typical for the sleeper gobies (Eleotrididae and Butidae). This character combination is so far unique and justifies the introduction of Eleogobius, new genus, including E. brevis (Ag.) (as type species) and the new species E. gaudanti. A further outcome is that all otoliths previously described as Gobius multipinnatus (H. v. Meyer) rather belong to E. gaudanti, new species, and that the otoliths of G. multipinnatus remain unknown until a skeleton with otoliths in situ is found. Our results indicate that fossil Gobiiformes may have been much more diverse than the currently known record suggests, and that many fossil species of “Gobius” might not belong to this genus, or indeed even to the Gobiidae.

The pimelodid catfish genus Hypophthalmus has an unusually modified Weberian apparatus, reduced swim bladder, and associated bones of the occiput and pectoral girdle. Using high resolution X-ray tomography and traditional skeletal preparations of adult and juvenile specimens, we reexamined and illustrated this occipito-vertebral complex. Comparisons were made to the plesiomorphic architecture of the complex exhibited by phylogenetically deep pimelodid genera. Hypophthalmus has the swim bladder reduced to a pair of separate bilobed sacs, each doubly encapsulated by outer and inner layers of bone. The anterior vertebrae and occipital bones are shortened and contorted with apparent loss or fusion of the first centrum and development of novel joints between the basioccipital and complex vertebra. Two pairs of the Weberian ossicles are lost: claustra and intercalaria. The posttemporal-supracleithrum is reshaped and solidly united to a recurved arm of the 4^th parapophysis with both extended far posteriorly to brace the outer swim bladder capsule and articulate with the cleithrum. The extrascapula is found in juveniles and apparently fuses with the adjacent pterotic. The third supraneural is present between the supraoccipital and complex vertebra. We point out conflicting results and interpretations among four previous studies and our treatment of the occipito-vertebral complex and swim bladder of Hypophthalmus. Based on unambiguous morphological and molecular evidence, Hypophthalmus belongs to the sorubimine clade of the family Pimelodidae. In this evolutionary context the morphology of the occipito-vertebral complex and swim bladder of Hypophthalmus is distinctly divergent from that of other sorubimines. The complex of Hypophthalmus is also distinct from the partially encapsulated swim bladders of the Calophysus and Megalonema clades. The morphology of the occipito-vertebral complex and swim bladder of Hypophthalmus is uniquely autapomorphic.

Teleost fishes exhibit a range of spawning modes that differ among the recruitment and timing of release of gametes. Oocyte staging is critical for understanding when females will spawn and in what spawning mode. Most of the data on reproductive biology of marine fishes is generated by fisheries biologists using specimens that are not archived in museum collections. We turned to these collections to investigate reproductive biology, including spawning mode and frequency, in the deep-sea hermaphrodite, the Shortnose Green Eye, Chlorophthalmus agassizi. Histological examination of specimens preserved over 50 years ago revealed both ovarian and testicular tissues in an ovotestis. Simultaneous activity of the female germinal epithelium and ongoing oocyte maturation and ovulation in these fishes which were preserved while spawning constitutes the basic mechanism of the asynchronous spawning mode in fishes: the germinal epithelium produces new follicles during or between spawning events. Well-preserved, archival museum specimens can provide information on reproductive biology for many taxa, especially rare species, which may never be the subject of detailed fisheries biology studies.

Currently, there is no standardized nomenclatural scheme for identifying and naming the bones of the snout in lower actinopterygians and specifically those fishes referred to as palaeoniscoids. A literature review reveals that the same bone names are used by different researchers to identify very different bones. This lack of homogeneity is problematic because it makes comparisons among taxa difficult, impairs our understanding of the morphological diversity of lower actinopterygians, and presents potential pitfalls when building character matrices for phylogenetic analyses. Because of the problems the absence of a standardized nomenclature scheme presents, a new set of rules for the identification of the bones of the snout of lower actinopterygians is proposed. These definitions are based on characters that are commonly preserved such as the presence of sensory canals, location of bones in relation to other bones, and whether or not the bones contribute to forming nasal openings. When numerous characters are present in a single bone, this bone is considered to be a complex bone, and the name reflects this. The new definitions are based on Remane’s criteria of similarity in position and detail and are an attempt at identifying homologous structures. The snout bones of various Devonian and Carboniferous palaeoniscoids are re-identified using this new nomenclature scheme. After that, patterns regarding the makeup of the snout in Devonian and Carboniferous palaeoniscoids emerged. The snouts of Carboniferous palaeoniscoids show much more morphological diversity than those of the Devonian forms. The phylogenetic signal of these new characters was tested with their inclusion in a phylogenetic matrix constructed to investigate the relationships of lower actinopterygians. The phylogenetic tree that resulted from analysis of this matrix has clades supported by some of the new snout characters. These results suggest that in-depth investigations into such characters are necessary to form a stronger understanding of the morphological diversity of lower actinopterygians and have implications for phylogenetic studies.

Many of the primary groups of fishes currently recognized have been established through an iterative process of anatomical study and comparison of fishes that has spanned a time period approaching 500 years. In this paper we give a brief history of the systematic morphology of fishes, focusing on some of the individuals and their works from which we derive our own inspiration. We further discuss what is possible at this point in history in the anatomical study of fishes and speculate on the future of morphology used in the systematics of fishes. Beyond the collection of facts about the anatomy of fishes, morphology remains extremely relevant in the age of molecular data for at least three broad reasons: 1) new techniques for the preparation of specimens allow new data sources to be broadly compared; 2) past morphological analyses, as well as new ideas about interrelationships of fishes (based on both morphological and molecular data) provide rich sources of hypotheses to test with new morphological investigations; and 3) the use of morphological data is not limited to understanding phylogeny and evolution of fishes, but rather is of broad utility to understanding the general biology (including phenotypic adaptation, evolution, ecology, and conservation biology) of fishes. Although in some ways morphology struggles to compete with the lure of molecular data for systematic research, we see the anatomical study of fishes entering into a new and exciting phase of its history because of recent technological and methodological innovations. With each new advance of technology and with each new generation of researcher, systematic morphology becomes a new and vibrant science.

This study investigates the skeletal architecture of the anteroproximal surface of the anterior pectoral basals in squaliform sharks, which presents distinctions at the insertion of one of the components of the depressor pectoralis muscle. Some squalomorph and galeomorph sharks studied have a different orientation of the propterygium or anteroproximal portion of the composite pectoral basal, as these project dorsally to form a distinct anterolateral plan for the insertion of the depressor pectoralis muscle. An exclusive condition of the anterior articular surface was observed in Centrophoridae, Dalatiidae, Oxynotidae, and Somniosidae, which have a hook-like process on the flattened and widened surface of the anteroproximal margin of the single or composite anterior pectoral basal. This distinct pectoral fin skeletal condition may represent evidence of a closer relationship among these taxa, whereas a dorsally projected anteriormost pectoral basal may represent the generalized condition among sharks.

Adult Atlantic Wolffish, Anarhichas lupus, have a heterodont oral dentition consisting of long caniniform teeth in the symphysial regions of the dentaries and premaxillae and large molariform teeth posteriorly on the dentaries, dermopalatines, and vomer. Teeth are ankylosed to the bone of attachment. Wolffish use the caniniform teeth to capture prey including molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms, and, less commonly, fishes. Prey are transported posteriorly and crushed between the molariform teeth. The molariform teeth of adults fit closely together despite individually variable shapes and sizes in a space-filling pattern that we term anamestic. Adult wolffish have an unusual tooth replacement pattern in which teeth are lost and subsequently replaced all at once, a pattern called simultaneous replacement. We used dissection, osteology, histology, and micro-computed tomography (CT) to study tooth replacement in a series of Anarhichas lupus from the western North Atlantic. Tooth development is intraosseous, with new tooth germs eroding into a specialized spongy portion of the bone of attachment. Simultaneous replacement involves extensive remodeling of this spongy bone. As planktonic larvae, wolffish have uniformly conical teeth, but relatively soon after settling a heterodont dentition similar to that of adults begins to develop. Juveniles exhibit a striking left-right symmetry of oral teeth and lack the anamestic pattern seen in adults. We compare tooth replacement in Atlantic Wolffish with that of Bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix, another teleost with intraosseus tooth replacement. Patterns of intraosseous replacement in these taxa represent different evolutionary solutions to different ecological conditions, particularly diets. Not all teleosts with intraosseous tooth development are heterodont, but we predict that teleosts with heterodont dentitions will have intraosseous tooth development because this offers a way to provide attachment for functional teeth while replacement teeth are developing.

The Holocentridae are nocturnal fishes inhabiting shallow to deep water coral and rocky reefs in the tropical parts of the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. They comprise two subfamilies, the squirrelfishes (Holocentrinae) and the soldierfishes (Myripristinae). Unlike the adults, holocentrid larvae are pelagic and are characterized by elaborate head spination, including a prominent rostrum and supraoccipital, preopercular, and opercular spines. The rostrum, formed by fused or separate nasal bones, can project far anterior to the mouth and is supported by a large, bulbous ethmoid cartilage. The spine-bearing bones, the lower jaw bones, and one pair of upper jaw bones (maxillae) are the first to ossify (at 1.2 mm NL). In several cleared-and-double-stained ontogenetic series of Holocentridae (1.2 mm NL–35.0 mm SL), we found that the other pair of upper jaw bones (premaxillae) exhibits a unique ontogenetic trajectory. The premaxillae develop late (between 5.9 mm and 6.6 mm), well after the other jaw bones and head spines are developed, and most of the remaining skeleton is ossified. Furthermore, the protuberant ethmoid cartilage precludes effective upper jaw protrusion until the larvae reach ca. 35 mm SL. In most marine fishes, all jaw bones ossify simultaneously very early in development along with the caudal fin and pectoral girdles, thus ensuring the ability to swim and feed immediately after hatching. We describe the jaw and rostrum development in holocentrids, compare it with that of tilefishes (Malacanthidae), the only other teleost in which the larvae have a rostrum comprising the nasal bones, and discuss the implications.

This is the first in a planned series of studies in which we examine the cranial muscle ontogeny of exemplar taxa of actinopterygian clades to obtain a better understanding of the evolution of the cranial musculoskeletal system within the Actinopterygii. The Longnose Gar, Lepisosteus osseus, is a member of the basal actinopterygian family Lepisosteidae. Juvenile and adult gars are highly derived and anatomical characters can easily be misinterpreted, which makes a comparison with other taxa difficult. Highly complex adult structures such as the cranial skeleton and musculature are organized more simply early in development, making comparisons and homology assessments easier. Established methods such as clearing and double staining are widely used to study skeletal structures. However, methods to analyze the ontogeny of soft tissues are scarce. To study the development of the cranial musculature of L. osseus, we used a combination of 3D-reconstruction of soft tissue μCT scans and whole-mount antibody staining. The elongation of the palatoquadrate and the dentary that form the long snout of gars begins late in ontogeny. However, the adductor mandibulae complex, which separates from the mandibular muscle primordium initially as a single portion, does not follow the extension of the palatoquadrate. We also show that the ceratomandibular ligament that attaches the ceratohyal with the retroarticular process of the lower jaw is homologous with the mandibulohyoid ligament.

The subfamily of Neotropical parasitic catfishes Stegophilinae (Trichomycteridae) is a remarkable group given its specialized feeding habits (lepidophagy, muciphagy, and necrophagy). Despite its biological interest, the systematics of this group has remained in an incipient state. Most genera lack a phylogenetic diagnosis, leading thus to taxonomic instability at that level. Similarly, the hypothesis of monophyly of Stegophilinae is supported by scant morphological evidence. In this study, based on a broad morphological comparative survey of representative genera and species of each subfamily of Trichomycteridae, new evidence is provided to support Stegophilinae as a monophyletic unit. Stegophilinae is herein recognized by four unique synapomorphies, three of them proposed here for the first time. Additionally, phylogenetic diagnoses are offered for all currently recognized genera (including Pareiodon), except Parastegophilus which is placed in the synonymy of Pseudostegophilus. An identification key for stegophiline genera based on external morphology is also presented.

Teeth are a potentially rich source of character data for phylogenetic studies of living and fossil sharks, but there are many uncertainties about the homologies of tooth loci as well as structural details of teeth in different taxa. Here, we provide new developmental data on the so-called lateral cusplets of the teeth in Lamniformes. We studied the five living species of Lamnidae (Lamna nasus, L. ditropis, Isurus oxyrinchus, I. paucus, and Carcharodon carcharias) and a more basal lamniform, the Sand Tiger Carcharias taurus, using light microscopy and micro-CT scanning. We also studied a single skeletal specimen of the smalltooth Sand Tiger, Odontaspis ferox. Structures in the teeth of juvenile White Sharks, C. carcharias, were interpreted as lateral cusplets in some previous studies, but we show that they develop differently from lateral cusplets in the teeth of Lamna and Carcharias. We conclude that the structures in Carcharodon are not homologous to the lateral cusplets of Lamna and Carcharias taurus and propose the new name, serrational cusplet, for them. The distinction is important because the presence of lateral cusplets has been used as a character in previous phylogenetic analyses of Lamniformes. According to our new interpretation, among the species we studied, C. taurus, O. ferox, L. nasus, and L. ditropis have lateral cusplets but I. oxyrinchus, I. paucus, and C. carcharias do not. We interpret that the loss of lateral cusplets is a synapomorphy of Carcharodon and Isurus. This new information and interpretation sets the stage for a more comprehensive reevaluation of dental characters and lamniform phylogeny.

New World members of the Gobiesocinae (including Acyrtops, Acyrtus, Arcos, Derilissus, Gobiesox, Pherallodiscus, Rimicola, Sicyases, and Tomicodon) exhibit a heterodont oral dentition comprising two, and in some cases three, different types of teeth. The oral jaw teeth of New World gobiesocines are arranged in a series of 2–4 short staggered rows along the anterolateral margin of the premaxilla and dentary, to which new teeth are added posteriorly (rows 1–4) via shallow open crypts located along the labial margin of the jaw bones and medially (row 1 only) via one or two shallow open crypts located adjacent to the jaw symphysis. A putative monophyletic group comprising solely the New World genera of the Gobiesocinae is hypothesized based on characters of tooth arrangement and replacement in the oral jaws. The phylogenetic position of Eckloniaichthys, a homodont and the only Old World member of the Gobiesocinae, is discussed. The mode of tooth attachment in the Gobiesocidae is Type 2 (i.e., ring of collagen between tooth base and bone of attachment), and the mode of tooth replacement in the oral jaws is interpreted as intermediate between intraosseus and extraosseus replacement (sensu Trapani) and to take place in association with an internal cavity along the jaw bones.

The subclass Teleostei Müller was erected in 1845 to contain all fishes possessing intermuscular bones (e.g., epineurals and epipleurals) and two arterial valves (in the conus arteriosus), and that are characterized also by the absence of muscles at the basal arteria (ventral aorta). Since these characters proved difficult for diagnosing fossils, the content of Teleostei was problematic from the start. These three characters are valid and uniquely derived, but the recognition of the taxon Teleostei sensu Müller has been ignored for most of the past 150 years, and the content of the group has changed numerous times. Additionally, a polyphyletic concept of Teleostei was the predominant idea for most of the last century. It was only during the 1970s that the monophyly of Teleostei was demonstrated. Although its monophyly is accepted, its content and phylogenetic relationships have been a subject of disagreement, with only some recent consensus between morphologists and molecular biologists. Understanding the history of Teleostei requires knowledge of its fossils forms. The monophyly of the total group Teleostei, which now includes Triassic pholidophorids, is supported by numerous synapomorphies, such as autosphenotic without small dermal component; unpaired vomer (in adults); complete ring of two sclerotic bones oriented anterior and posterior to orbit; and a hypural articulating with a few caudal rays—with further transformations in more advanced teleosts. Current evidence indicates that some Late Triassic taxa (†Pholidophoretes salvus and †Knerichthys bronni) from Europe represent the oldest known †pholidophorids, and the European genus †Prohalecites from the Ladinian/Carnian (Triassic; c. 240 Ma) boundary represents the oldest stem teleost. The synapomorphies now shared by living teleosts appeared stepwise more than 100 million years ago in the common ancestors of the sequential sisters of now living groups; they did not originate in the common ancestor of the three main living teleost clades (elopomorphs, and osteoglossomorphs plus clupeocephalans), and the analyses of character distribution reflects the gradual accumulation of features that now diagnose Recent teleosts. A list of characters supporting these hierarchical phylogenetic levels is provided.

The loss and modification of freshwater ecosystems has led to high rates of imperilment for freshwater species. The Giant Gartersnake (Thamnophis gigas) is among the species that have suffered declines in abundance and spatial distribution and is currently listed as a threatened species by the U.S. government and the State of California. Conservation and management of populations of T. gigas are hampered by a lack of information on its demography. Without estimates of demographic parameters, the status of the population is difficult to characterize, and identifying the parameters to target in management planning is problematic. We used capture–recapture data from two populations in the Great Central Valley of California to estimate annual survival probability. We also evaluated hypothesized causes of variation in survival probability among individuals and among years. Model-selection results for the population in the American Basin indicated that females have a higher survival probability than males and that survival probability and the amount of precipitation between 15 April and 15 May in a year are negatively correlated. Associations with other weather covariates were also supported, but the evidence was weaker. For the population in the Natomas Basin, the model-selection results indicated a positive association between survival probability and the body size of an individual (snout-to-vent length). There was also evidence that females have higher survival probabilities than males, but the support for this effect was weaker. This work fills gaps in our understanding of the demography of T. gigas by providing estimates of survival probability for males and age classes for which estimates were previously not available.

The Harlequin Coralsnake (Micrurus fulvius) is an iconic and imperiled species of the southeastern United States, but we know little of its ecology and natural history. We used our field notes on incidentally observed coralsnakes within three large, protected areas in Georgia and Florida (Apalachicola National Forest, Eglin Air Force Base, and Fort Stewart Military Installation) to generate information related to the habitat preferences of individual animals. We generated random location points in each of our study areas and compared the landscape-scale habitats surrounding them to the habitats surrounding coralsnake location points. We obtained evidence that coralsnakes exhibit hierarchal (i.e., multiscale) habitat selection. Specifically, coralsnakes were found in areas with more sandy soils (250 m scale) and scrub/shrub habitat (500 m scale) than random points across the landscape. Our study generates novel habitat information for a poorly known species.

The Eastern and Florida Chicken Turtle subspecies (Deirochelys reticularia reticularia and D. r. chrysea) exhibit nesting cycles that are atypical for aquatic North American turtles, with nesting occurring in the fall, winter, and early spring. The reproductive cycles of the western subspecies (D. r. miaria), however, have not been studied. Therefore, we monitored the reproductive status of female D. r. miaria in 2012 and 2013. In our populations, both male and female D. r. miaria were inactive on land from mid-July to mid-March. This differs from the activity patterns of the other subspecies in which females typically remain active into the fall and sometimes winter. Also, in contrast to the nesting patterns of D. r. reticularia and D. r. chrysea, female D. r. miaria developed follicles in the spring and summer (March–July) and contained eggs in the summer (May–July). Therefore, we conclude that the Western Chicken Turtle exhibits a nesting pattern that is more similar to that of other sympatric species in the family Emydidae than it is to other subspecies of D. reticularia.

The breeding calls of frogs and toads serve to attract females and advertise the fitness attributes of individual males, but male frogs will also call outside the breeding season. Here, we document non-reproductive (upland) calling in Crawfish Frogs (Lithobates areolatus), a species of conservation concern. Adults are obligate crayfish burrow dwellers and generally live in isolation. We document post-breeding upland call characteristics and identify peak upland seasonal calling times. We show that Crawfish Frog upland and breeding call spectral and temporal structures differ, suggesting these calls serve different functions. We also show that the transition between these distinct call types can occur within a relatively short time, 120 min, as Crawfish Frog males leave their burrows to begin breeding migrations. We demonstrate that upland calling rates increase as the summer progresses and that males call in response to specific stimuli—results consistent with a burrow defense hypothesis. Further, 28 (51%) of the 55 upland calling bouts we recorded were associated with human-generated triggers, including the sounds of airplanes and automobiles, a finding confirmed using playback experiments. Calling in response to noise pollution can increase exposure to predators, and we discuss the conservation implications of this action for this imperiled species.

We conducted a four-year study of the life history parameters of the endangered freshwater turtle Podocnemis lewyana (Testudines: Podocnemididae) in four channels connecting wetlands to the Magdalena River in northern Colombia. Using capture–mark–recapture techniques, we documented body size growth rates, sex ratios, and size class distributions, and estimated survival rates for juveniles and adults. We also used body size/clutch size and body size/track width correlations to estimate the body sizes of females that nested in beaches in the Magdalena River near the study sites. The body size at first nesting (30 cm straight-line carapace length) was comparable to the estimate obtained by inspecting the reproductive tracts of 70 females using a sonograph. Growth rate analyses showed adult males to be smaller than adult females with an estimated size at sexual maturity of 20 cm straight-line carapace length. Females begin nesting at 5–6 years of age and may lay up to four clutches annually with a mean clutch size of 22 eggs. The overall sex ratio was 1♀:0.72♂, but this parameter varied among study sites, as did size class distributions, with juveniles more abundant in the two shallower channels and adults more abundant in the two deeper channels. Survival estimates increased with increasing body sizes. We constructed a projection matrix using these estimates of the key life history parameters for this population and used an uncertainty analysis to create a distribution of possible asymptotic population growth rates (λ), to estimate the vectors of stable age distribution and reproductive values, and conduct an elasticity analysis. Results indicated that the population is declining 8.8% annually, probably as a result of illegal over-exploitation of adults that are harvested as by-catch by local fishermen, and especially of reproductive females that are captured while nesting. Elasticity analyses indicated that the most effective way to help this population recover is to increase adult survival rates, since this transition alone accounted for 62% of the contribution of all vital rates to the population growth rate. Traditional management methods that rely entirely on nest transfer and head-starting will likely be of limited impact.

Graptemys oculifera is endemic to the Pearl River drainage system in Louisiana and Mississippi, and due to this limited range it is vulnerable to environmental changes. Many impacts to this drainage system are due to anthropogenic activities, and alterations may negatively impact the connectivity among populations of G. oculifera. Previous studies show populations below the Ross Barnett Reservoir might be undergoing population declines, suggesting limited movement among populations. In addition to anthropogenic effects, the drainage geomorphology might also play a role in shaping population connectivity, as the sister species of G. oculifera, G. flavimaculata, contains two distinct populations (mainstem Pascagoula and Escatawpa River) and possible subpopulations within the Pascagoula (upper Leaf River, upper Chickasawhay River, and lower sections of the Pascagoula River). We used six polymorphic microsatellite loci to analyze the population genetics of G. oculifera at eight sites in the Pearl River drainage. The STRUCTURE program found support for one genetic group; however, our AMOVA analysis detected small but significant genetic differentiation in our three-group analysis. Both the MIGRATE and Isolation-by-Distance analyses supported a stepping stone model of gene flow, not panmixia. We suggest management agencies should consider these genetic data when developing management plans. Although we did not detect any influence of the reservoir on population connectivity, likely due to the long generation times of turtles, we suggest mark–recapture and/or radio-telemetry studies be performed on populations near the reservoir to determine if cross reservoir movements occur.

In 1942, an effort was made to establish an award for outstanding achievement in herpetology by an established professional, to be named the Alexander G. Ruthven Award. Financial constraints at the time prevented the realization of the effort. It would be 47 years before such an award was finally established.